Enlil

Last updated

Enlil
God of the Wind, Air, the Earth, and Storms
God Enlil, seated, from Nippur, Iraq. 1800-1600 BCE. Iraq Museum.jpg
Statuette of Enlil sitting on his throne from the site of Nippur, dated to 1800–1600 BC, now on display in the Iraq Museum
Cuneiform 𒀭𒂗𒆤
Abode Nippur
SymbolHorned crown
Personal information
Parents An and Ki
Consort Ninlil, Ki
Children Ninurta, Nanna, Nergal, Ninazu, and Enbilulu
Equivalents
Babylonian equivalentElil
Hurrian equivalent Kumarbi
Akkadian equivalentEllil

Enlil, [lower-alpha 1] later known as Elil and Ellil, is an ancient Mesopotamian god associated with wind, air, earth, and storms. [4] He is first attested as the chief deity of the Sumerian pantheon, [5] but he was later worshipped by the Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Hurrians. Enlil's primary center of worship was the Ekur temple in the city of Nippur, which was believed to have been built by Enlil himself and was regarded as the "mooring-rope" of heaven and earth. He is also sometimes referred to in Sumerian texts as Nunamnir. According to one Sumerian hymn, Enlil himself was so holy that not even the other gods could look upon him. Enlil rose to prominence during the twenty-fourth century BC with the rise of Nippur. His cult fell into decline after Nippur was sacked by the Elamites in 1230 BC and he was eventually supplanted as the chief god of the Mesopotamian pantheon by the Babylonian national god Marduk.

Contents

Enlil plays a vital role in the Eridu Genesis; he separates An (heaven) from Ki (earth), thus making the world habitable for humans. In the Sumerian flood myth, Enlil rewards Ziusudra with immortality for having survived the flood and, in the Babylonian flood myth, Enlil is the cause of the flood himself, having sent the flood to exterminate the human race, who made too much noise and prevented him from sleeping. The myth of Enlil and Ninlil is about Enlil's serial seduction of the goddess Ninlil in various guises, resulting in the conception of the moon-god Nanna and the Underworld deities Nergal, Ninazu, and Enbilulu. Enlil was regarded as the inventor of the mattock and the patron of agriculture. Enlil also features prominently in several myths involving his son Ninurta, including Anzû and the Tablet of Destinies and Lugale.

Etymology

Enlil's name comes from ancient Sumerian EN (𒂗), meaning "lord" and LÍL (𒆤), the meaning of which is contentious, [6] [1] [7] and which has sometimes been interpreted as meaning winds as a weather phenomenon (making Enlil a weather and sky god, "Lord Wind" or "Lord Storm"), [8] [2] [3] or alternatively as signifying a spirit or phantom whose presence may be felt as stirring of the air, or possibly as representing a partial Semitic loanword rather than a Sumerian word at all. [9] Enlil's name is not a genitive construction, [10] suggesting that Enlil was seen as the personification of LÍL rather than merely the cause of LÍL. [10]

Piotr Steinkeller has written that the meaning of LÍL may not actually be a clue to a specific divine domain of Enlil's, whether storms, spirits, or otherwise, since Enlil may have been "a typical universal god [...] without any specific domain." [11]

Piotr Steinkeller and Piotr Michalowski have doubts about the Sumerian origin of Enlil. [12] They have questioned the true meaning of the name, and identified Enlil with the Eblaite word I-li-lu. [12] As noted by Manfred Krebernik and M. P. Streck; Enlil being referred to as Kur-gal (the Great Mountain) in Sumerian texts suggests he might have originated in eastern Mesopotamia. [12]

Worship

Modern photograph of the ruins of the Ekur temple at Nippur Ruins from a temple in Naffur.jpg
Modern photograph of the ruins of the Ekur temple at Nippur
Floor plan of the Ekur temple in Nippur Ekur plan.svg
Floor plan of the Ekur temple in Nippur

Enlil who sits broadly on the white dais, on the lofty dais, who perfects the decrees of power, lordship, and princeship, the earth-gods bow down in fear before him, the heaven-gods humble themselves before him...

— Sumerian hymn to Enlil, translated by Samuel Noah Kramer [13]
Cuneiform inscription on a diorite mortar from Nippur stating that this was an offering from Gudea to Enlil (c. 2144-2124 BC) Cuneiform inscription on a diorite mortar stating that this was an offering from Gudea to Enlil. From Nippur, Iraq. 2144-2124 BCE. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul.jpg
Cuneiform inscription on a diorite mortar from Nippur stating that this was an offering from Gudea to Enlil (c. 2144–2124 BC)

Enlil was the patron god of the Sumerian city-state of Nippur [14] and his main center of worship was the Ekur temple located there. [15] The name of the temple literally means "Mountain House" in ancient Sumerian. [16] The Ekur was believed to have been built and established by Enlil himself. [16] It was believed to be the "mooring-rope" of heaven and earth, [16] meaning that it was seen as "a channel of communication between earth and heaven". [17] A hymn written during the reign of Ur-Nammu, the founder of the Third Dynasty of Ur, describes the E-kur in great detail, stating that its gates were carved with scenes of Imdugud, a lesser deity sometimes shown as a giant bird, slaying a lion and an eagle snatching up a sinner. [16]

The Sumerians believed that the sole purpose of humanity's existence was to serve the gods. [18] [19] They thought that a god's statue was a physical embodiment of the god himself. [20] [21] As such, cult statues were given constant care and attention [22] [20] and a set of priests were assigned to tend to them. [23] People worshipped Enlil by offering food and other human necessities to him. [18] The food, which was ritually laid out before the god's cult statue in the form of a feast, [22] [20] was believed to be Enlil's daily meal, [18] but, after the ritual, it would be distributed among his priests. [18] These priests were also responsible for changing the cult statue's clothing. [21]

The Sumerians envisioned Enlil as a benevolent, fatherly deity, who watches over humanity and cares for their well-being. [24] One Sumerian hymn describes Enlil as so glorious that even the other gods could not look upon him. [25] [26] The same hymn also states that, without Enlil, civilization could not exist. [26] Enlil's epithets include titles such as "the Great Mountain" and "King of the Foreign Lands". [25] Enlil is also sometimes described as a "raging storm", a "wild bull", and a "merchant". [25] The Mesopotamians envisioned him as a creator, a father, a king, and the supreme lord of the universe. [25] [27] He was also known as "Nunamnir" [25] and is referred to in at least one text as the "East Wind and North Wind". [25]

Kings regarded Enlil as a model ruler and sought to emulate his example. [28] Enlil was said to be supremely just [13] and intolerant towards evil. [13] Rulers from all over Sumer would travel to Enlil's temple in Nippur to be legitimized. [29] They would return Enlil's favor by devoting lands and precious objects to his temple as offerings. [30] Nippur was the only Sumerian city-state that never built a palace; [18] this was intended to symbolize the city's importance as the center of the cult of Enlil by showing that Enlil himself was the city's king. [18] Even during the Babylonian Period, when Marduk had superseded Enlil as the supreme god, Babylonian kings still traveled to the holy city of Nippur to seek recognition of their right to rule. [30]

Enlil first rose to prominence during the twenty-fourth century BC, when the importance of the god An began to wane. [31] [32] During this time period, Enlil and An are frequently invoked together in inscriptions. [31] Enlil remained the supreme god in Mesopotamia throughout the Amorite Period, [33] with Amorite monarchs proclaiming Enlil as the source of their legitimacy. [33] Enlil's importance began to wane after the Babylonian king Hammurabi conquered Sumer. [34] The Babylonians worshipped Enlil under the name "Elil" [4] and the Hurrians syncretized him with their own god Kumarbi. [4] In one Hurrian ritual, Enlil and Apantu are invoked as "the father and mother of Išḫara". [35] Enlil is also invoked alongside Ninlil as a member of "the mighty and firmly established gods". [35]

During the Kassite Period (c. 1592–1155 BC), Nippur briefly managed to regain influence in the region and Enlil rose to prominence once again. [34] From around 1300 BC onwards, Enlil was syncretized with the Assyrian national god Aššur, [36] who was the most important deity in the Assyrian pantheon. [37] Then, in 1230 BC, the Elamites attacked Nippur and the city fell into decline, taking the cult of Enlil along with it. [34] Approximately one hundred years later, Enlil's role as the head of the pantheon was given to Marduk, the national god of the Babylonians. [34]

Iconography

Gudea dedication tablet to God Ningirsu: "For Ningirsu, Enlil's mighty warrior, his Master, Gudea, ensi of Lagash" Gudea dedication tablet to Ningirsu.jpg
Gudea dedication tablet to God Ningirsu: "For Ningirsu, Enlil's mighty warrior, his Master, Gudea, ensi of Lagash"

Enlil was represented by the symbol of a horned cap, which consisted of up to seven superimposed pairs of ox-horns. [38] Such crowns were an important symbol of divinity; [39] [40] gods had been shown wearing them ever since the third millennium BC. [39] The horned cap remained consistent in form and meaning from the earliest days of Sumerian prehistory up until the time of the Persian conquest and beyond. [39] [21]

The Sumerians had a complex numerological system, in which certain numbers were believed to hold special ritual significance. [41] Within this system, Enlil was associated with the number fifty, which was considered sacred to him. [42] Enlil was part of a triad of deities, which also included An and Enki. [43] [44] [45] [46] These three deities together were the embodiment of all the fixed stars in the night sky. [47] [45] An was identified with all the stars of the equatorial sky, Enlil with those of the northern sky, and Enki with those of the southern sky. [47] [45] The path of Enlil's celestial orbit was a continuous, symmetrical circle around the north celestial pole, [48] but those of An and Enki were believed to intersect at various points. [49] Enlil was associated with the constellation Boötes. [25]

Mythology

Origins myths

The main source of information about the Eridu Genesis myth is the prologue to the epic poem Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld (ETCSL 1.8.1.4), [50] which briefly describes the process of creation: originally, there was only Nammu, the primeval sea. [51] Then, Nammu gave birth to An, the sky, and Ki, the earth. [51] An and Ki mated with each other, causing Ki to give birth to Enlil. [51] Enlil separated An from Ki and carried off the earth as his domain, while An carried off the sky. [52] Enlil marries his mother, Ki, and from this union all the plant and animal life on earth is produced. [53]

Enlil and Ninlil (ETCSL 1.2.1) is a nearly complete 152-line Sumerian poem describing the affair between Enlil and the goddess Ninlil. [54] [55] First, Ninlil's mother Nunbarshegunu instructs Ninlil to go bathe in the river. [56] Ninlil goes to the river, where Enlil seduces her and impregnates her with their son, the moon-god Nanna. [55] Because of this, Enlil is banished to Kur, the Sumerian underworld. [55] Ninlil follows Enlil to the underworld, where he impersonates the "man of the gate". [57] Ninlil demands to know where Enlil has gone, but Enlil, still impersonating the gatekeeper, refuses to answer. [57] He then seduces Ninlil and impregnates her with Nergal, the god of death. [58] The same scenario repeats, only this time Enlil instead impersonates the "man of the river of the nether world, the man-devouring river"; once again, he seduces Ninlil and impregnates her with the god Ninazu. [59] Finally, Enlil impersonates the "man of the boat"; once again, he seduces Ninlil and impregnates her with Enbilulu, the "inspector of the canals". [60]

The story of Enlil's courtship with Ninlil is primarily a genealogical myth invented to explain the origins of the moon-god Nanna, as well as the various gods of the Underworld, [54] but it is also, to some extent, a coming-of-age story describing Enlil and Ninlil's emergence from adolescence into adulthood. [61] The story also explains Ninlil's role as Enlil's consort; in the poem, Ninlil declares, "As Enlil is your master, so am I also your mistress!" [62] The story is also historically significant because, if the current interpretation of it is correct, it is the oldest known myth in which a god changes shape. [54]

Flood myth

In the Sumerian version of the flood story (ETCSL 1.7.4), the causes of the flood are unclear because the portion of the tablet recording the beginning of the story has been destroyed. [63] Somehow, a mortal known as Ziusudra manages to survive the flood, likely through the help of the god Enki. [64] The tablet begins in the middle of the description of the flood. [64] The flood lasts for seven days and seven nights before it subsides. [65] Then, Utu, the god of the Sun, emerges. [65] Ziusudra opens a window in the side of the boat and falls down prostrate before the god. [65] Next, he sacrifices an ox and a sheep in honor of Utu. [65] At this point, the text breaks off again. [65] When it picks back up, Enlil and An are in the midst of declaring Ziusudra immortal as an honor for having managed to survive the flood. The remaining portion of the tablet after this point is destroyed. [65]

In the later Akkadian version of the flood story, recorded in the Epic of Gilgamesh , Enlil actually causes the flood, [66] seeking to annihilate every living thing on earth because the humans, who are vastly overpopulated, make too much noise and prevent him from sleeping. [67] In this version of the story, the hero is Utnapishtim, [68] who is warned ahead of time by Ea, the Babylonian equivalent of Enki, that the flood is coming. [69] The flood lasts for seven days; when it ends, Ishtar, who had mourned the destruction of humanity, [70] promises Utnapishtim that Enlil will never cause a flood again. [71] When Enlil sees that Utnapishtim and his family have survived, he is outraged, [72] but his son Ninurta speaks up in favor of humanity, arguing that, instead of causing floods, Enlil should simply ensure that humans never become overpopulated by reducing their numbers using wild animals and famines. [73] Enlil goes into the boat; Utnapishtim and his wife bow before him. [73] Enlil, now appeased, grants Utnapishtim immortality as a reward for his loyalty to the gods. [74]

Chief god and arbitrator

Plucks at the roots, tears at the crown, the pickax spares the... plants; the pickax, its fate is decreed by father Enlil, the pickax is exalted.

— Enlil's Invention of the Pickax, translated by Samuel Noah Kramer [75]

A nearly complete 108-line poem from the Early Dynastic Period (c. 2900–2350 BC) describes Enlil's invention of the mattock, [76] [77] a key agricultural pick, hoe, ax, or digging tool of the Sumerians. [78] [77] In the poem, Enlil conjures the mattock into existence and decrees its fate. [79] The mattock is described as gloriously beautiful; it is made of pure gold and its head is carved from lapis lazuli. [79] Enlil gives the tool over to the humans, who use it to build cities, [75] subjugate their people, [75] and pull up weeds. [75] Enlil was believed to aid in the growth of plants. [78]

The Sumerian poem Enlil Chooses the Farmer–God (ETCSL 5.3.3) describes how Enlil, hoping "to establish abundance and prosperity", creates two gods Emesh and Enten, a shepherd and a farmer, respectively. [80] The two gods argue and Emesh lays claim to Enten's position. [81] They take the dispute before Enlil, who rules in favor of Enten; [82] the two gods rejoice and reconcile. [82]

Ninurta myths

Ninurta with his thunderbolts pursues Anzu, who has stolen the Tablet of Destinies from Enlil's sanctuary (Austen Henry Layard Monuments of Nineveh, 2nd Series, 1853) Chaos Monster and Sun God.png
Ninurta with his thunderbolts pursues Anzû, who has stolen the Tablet of Destinies from Enlil's sanctuary (Austen Henry Layard Monuments of Nineveh, 2nd Series, 1853)

In the Sumerian poem Lugale (ETCSL 1.6.2), Enlil gives advice to his son, the god Ninurta, advising him on a strategy to slay the demon Asag. [83] This advice is relayed to Ninurta by way of Sharur, his enchanted talking mace, which had been sent by Ninurta to the realm of the gods to seek counsel from Enlil directly. [83]

In the Old, Middle, and Late Babylonian myth of Anzû and the Tablet of Destinies, the Anzû, a giant, monstrous bird, [84] betrays Enlil and steals the Tablet of Destinies, [85] a sacred clay tablet belonging to Enlil that grants him his authority, [86] while Enlil is preparing for a bath. [87] The rivers dry up and the gods are stripped of their powers. [87] The gods send Adad, Girra, and Shara to defeat the Anzû, [87] but all of them fail. [87] Finally, Ea proposes that the gods should send Ninurta, Enlil's son. [87] Ninurta successfully defeats the Anzû and returns the Tablet of Destinies to his father. [87] As a reward, Ninurta is granted a prominent seat on the council of the gods. [87]

War of the gods

A badly damaged text from the Neo-Assyrian Period (911–612 BC) describes Marduk leading his army of Anunnaki into the sacred city of Nippur and causing a disturbance. [88] The disturbance causes a flood, [88] which forces the resident gods of Nippur under the leadership of Enlil to take shelter in the Eshumesha temple to Ninurta. [88] Enlil is enraged at Marduk's transgression and orders the gods of Eshumesha to take Marduk and the other Anunnaki as prisoners. [88] The Anunnaki are captured, [88] but Marduk appoints his front-runner Mushteshirhablim to lead a revolt against the gods of Eshumesha [89] and sends his messenger Neretagmil to alert Nabu, the god of literacy. [89] When the Eshumesha gods hear Nabu speak, they come out of their temple to search for him. [90] Marduk defeats the Eshumesha gods and takes 360 of them as prisoners of war, including Enlil himself. [90] Enlil protests that the Eshumesha gods are innocent, [90] so Marduk puts them on trial before the Anunnaki. [90] The text ends with a warning from Damkianna (another name for Ninhursag) to the gods and to humanity, pleading them not to repeat the war between the Anunnaki and the gods of Eshumesha. [90]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Enki</span> God in Sumerian mythology

Enki is the Sumerian god of water, knowledge (gestú), crafts (gašam), and creation (nudimmud), and one of the Anunnaki. He was later known as Ea or Ae in Akkadian (Assyrian-Babylonian) religion, and is identified by some scholars with Ia in Canaanite religion. The name was rendered Aos in Greek sources.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ninhursag</span> Sumerian goddess

Ninḫursaĝ sometimes transcribed Ninursag, Ninḫarsag, or Ninḫursaĝa, also known as Damgalnuna or Ninmah, was the ancient Sumerian mother goddess of the mountains, and one of the seven great deities of Sumer. She is known earliest as a nurturing or fertility goddess. Temple hymn sources identify her as the "true and great lady of heaven" and kings of Lagash were "nourished by Ninhursag's milk". She is the tutelary deity to several Sumerian leaders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inanna</span> Ancient Mesopotamian goddess

Inanna is the ancient Mesopotamian goddess of love, war, and fertility. She is also associated with sensuality, procreation, divine law, and political power. Originally worshiped in Sumer, she was known by the Akkadian Empire, Babylonians, and Assyrians as Ishtar. Her primary title was "the Queen of Heaven".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ancient Mesopotamian religion</span> Western Asian body of religious beliefs

Mesopotamian religion was the original religious beliefs and practices of the civilizations of ancient Mesopotamia, particularly Sumer, Akkad, Assyria and Babylonia between circa 6000 BC and 400 AD. The religious development of Mesopotamia and Mesopotamian culture in general, especially in the south, were not particularly influenced by the movements of the various peoples into and throughout the area. Rather, Mesopotamian religion was a consistent and coherent tradition, which adapted to the internal needs of its adherents over millennia of development.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marduk</span> National god of the Babylonians

Marduk is a god from ancient Mesopotamia and patron deity of the city of Babylon who eventually rose to power in the First Millennium BC. In the city of Babylon, Marduk was worshipped in the temple Esagila. His symbol is the spade and he is associated with the Mušḫuššu.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ninurta</span> Ancient Mesopotamian god

Ninurta (Sumerian: 𒀭𒊩𒌆𒅁: DNIN.URTA, possible meaning "Lord [of] Barley"), also known as Ninĝirsu (Sumerian: 𒀭𒎏𒄈𒋢: DNIN.ĜIR2.SU, meaning "Lord [of] Girsu"), is an ancient Mesopotamian god associated with farming, healing, hunting, law, scribes, and war who was first worshipped in early Sumer. In the earliest records, he is a god of agriculture and healing, who cures humans of sicknesses and releases them from the power of demons. In later times, as Mesopotamia grew more militarized, he became a warrior deity, though he retained many of his earlier agricultural attributes. He was regarded as the son of the chief god Enlil and his main cult center in Sumer was the Eshumesha temple in Nippur. Ninĝirsu was honored by King Gudea of Lagash (ruled 2144–2124 BC), who rebuilt Ninĝirsu's temple in Lagash. Later, Ninurta became beloved by the Assyrians as a formidable warrior. The Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II (ruled 883–859 BC) built a massive temple for him at Kalhu, which became his most important cult center from then on.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anunnaki</span> Group of ancient Mesopotamian deities

The Anunnaki are a group of deities of the ancient Sumerians, Akkadians, Assyrians and Babylonians. In the earliest Sumerian writings about them, which come from the Post-Akkadian period, the Anunnaki are deities in the pantheon, descendants of An and Ki, the god of the heavens and the goddess of earth, and their primary function was to decree the fates of humanity. They should not be confused with the Apkallu.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anzû</span> Ancient Mesopotamian deity

Anzû, also known as dZû and Imdugud, is a monster in several Mesopotamian religions. He was conceived by the pure waters of the Abzu and the wide Earth, or as son of Siris. Anzû was depicted as a massive bird who can breathe fire and water, although Anzû is alternately depicted as a lion-headed eagle.

Ninlil was a Mesopotamian goddess regarded as the wife of Enlil. She shared many of his functions, especially the responsibility for declaring destinies, and like him was regarded as a senior deity and head of the pantheon. She is also well attested as the mother of his children, such as the underworld god Nergal, the moon god Nanna or the warrior god Ninurta. She was chiefly worshiped in Nippur and nearby Tummal alongside Enlil, and multiple temples and shrines dedicated to her are attested in textual sources from these cities. In the first millennium BCE she was also introduced to Ḫursaĝkalamma near Kish, where she was worshiped alongside the goddess Bizilla, who was likely her sukkal.

Ki was the earth goddess in Sumerian religion, chief consort of the sky god An. In some legends Ki and An were brother and sister, being the offspring of Anshar and Kishar, earlier personifications of the heavens and earth.

Ninazu was a Mesopotamian god of the underworld of Sumerian origin. He was also associated with snakes and vegetation, and with time acquired the character of a warrior god. He was frequently associated with Ereshkigal, either as a son, husband, or simply as a deity belonging to the same category of underworld gods.

Enmesharra was a Mesopotamian god associated with the underworld. He was regarded as a member of an inactive old generation of deities, and as such was commonly described as a ghost or resident of the underworld. He is best known from various lists of primordial deities, such as the so-called "theogony of Enlil," which lists many generations of ancestral deities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anu</span> Ancient Mesopotamian god of the sky; god of all gods

Anu or Anum, originally An, was the divine personification of the sky, king of the gods, and ancestor of many of the deities in ancient Mesopotamian religion. He was regarded as a source of both divine and human kingship, and opens the enumerations of deities in many Mesopotamian texts. At the same time, his role was largely passive, and he was not commonly worshipped. It is sometimes proposed that the Eanna temple located in Uruk originally belonged to him, rather than Inanna, but while he is well attested as one of its divine inhabitants, there is no evidence that the main deity of the temple ever changed, and Inanna was already associated with it in the earliest sources. After it declined, a new theological system developed in the same city under Seleucid rule, resulting in Anu being redefined as an active deity. As a result he was actively worshipped by inhabitants of the city in the final centuries of the history of ancient Mesopotamia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sumerian religion</span> First religion of the Mesopotamia region which is tangible by writing

Sumerian religion was the religion practiced by the people of Sumer, the first literate civilization found in recorded history and based in ancient Mesopotamia. The Sumerians regarded their divinities as responsible for all matters pertaining to the natural and social orders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Debate between sheep and grain</span> Sumerian creation myth

The "Debate between sheep and grain" or "Myth of cattle and grain" is a Sumerian creation myth, written on clay tablets in the mid to late 3rd millennium BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Enlil and Ninlil</span> Sumerian creation myth

Enlil and Ninlil, the Myth of Enlil and Ninlil, or Enlil and Ninlil: The begetting of Nanna is a Sumerian creation myth, written on clay tablets in the mid to late 3rd millennium BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Angim</span> Ancient Mesopotamian poem

The work known by its incipit, Angim, "The Return of Ninurta to Nippur", is a rather obsequious 210-line mythological praise poem for the ancient Mesopotamian warrior-god Ninurta, describing his return to Nippur from an expedition to the mountains (KUR), where he boasts of his triumphs against "rebel lands" (KI.BAL), boasting to Enlil in the Ekur, before returning to the Ešumeša temple—to “manifest his authority and kingship.”

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ancient Mesopotamian underworld</span> Concept of the underworld in ancient Mesopotamian culture

The ancient Mesopotamian underworld, most often known in Sumerian as Kur, Irkalla, Kukku, Arali, or Kigal and in Akkadian as Erṣetu, although it had many names in both languages, was a dark, dreary cavern located deep below the ground, where inhabitants were believed to continue "a transpositional version of life on earth". The only food or drink was dry dust, but family members of the deceased would pour sacred mineral libations from the earth for them to drink. In the Sumerian underworld, it was initially believed that there was no final judgement of the deceased and the dead were neither punished nor rewarded for their deeds in life.

Lugaldukuga was a Mesopotamian god primarily understood as a theogonic figure. He is best attested as the father of Enlil, the head of the Mesopotamian pantheon, though other traditions about the parentage of the latter also existed, and no references to him in this role are known from before the Kassite period. Sometimes he could also be described as his grandfather instead. He was envisioned as a no longer active and as an inhabitant of the underworld. He could be equated with other deities of similar character, such as Enmesharra. It is not known which part of Mesopotamia he originated in, though references to him are known from texts from both Babylonia and Assyria.

References

Notes

  1. ↑ Sumerian: 𒀭𒂗𒆤 d EN.LÍL, "Lord [of the] Wind" [1] [2] [3]

Citations

  1. 1 2 Halloran 2006.
  2. 1 2 Holland 2009, p. 114.
  3. 1 2 Nemet-Nejat 1998, p. 182.
  4. 1 2 3 Coleman & Davidson 2015, p. 108.
  5. ↑ Kramer 1983, pp. 115–121.
  6. ↑ Stone, Adam. "Enlil/Ellil (god)". Ancient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses. Oracc and the UK Higher Education Academy. Retrieved 20 December 2020.
  7. ↑ Wang, Xianhua. The Metamorphosis of Enlil in Early Mesopotamia. pp. 6–22. Retrieved 20 December 2020.
  8. ↑ Jacobsen, Thorkild (1989). "The líl of En-líl". In Berens, H.; Loding, D. M.; Roth, M. T. (eds.). DUMU-É-DUB-BA-A: Studies in Honor of Åke W. Sjöberg. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. pp. 267–276. ISBN   978-0934718981.
  9. ↑ Michalowski, Piotr (1998). "The unbearable lightness of Enlil". In Prosecký, J. (ed.). Intellectual Life of the Ancient Near East. The Oriental Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic. p. 240.
  10. 1 2 van der Toorn, Becking & Willem 1999, p. 356.
  11. ↑ Steinkeller, Piotr (1999). "On Rulers, Priests, and Sacred Marriage: Tracing the Evolution of Early Sumerian Kingship". In Watanabe, K. (ed.). Priests and Officials in the Ancient Near East. p. 114, n. 36.
  12. 1 2 3 Marcus, David; Pettinato, Giovanni (2005). "Enlil". In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference USA. p. 2799. Piotr Steinkeller (1999) and Piotr Michalowski (1998) have cast doubt upon the Sumerian nature of the god Enlil. They discuss the actual meaning of the name, equating the Eblaite I-li-lu with Enlil. Just how at variance this is with other Sumerian myths has been shown by Manfred Krebernik and M. P. Streck, and the epithet of Enlil in Sumerian literature is kur-gal (great mountain), suggesting origins in eastern Mesopotamia.
  13. 1 2 3 Kramer 1963, p. 120.
  14. ↑ Hallo 1996, pp. 231–234.
  15. ↑ Black & Green 1992, pp. 74 and 76.
  16. 1 2 3 4 Black & Green 1992, p. 74.
  17. ↑ Black & Green 1992, p. 53.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Janzen 2004, p. 247.
  19. ↑ Kramer 1963, p. 123.
  20. 1 2 3 Black & Green 1992, p. 94.
  21. 1 2 3 Nemet-Nejat 1998, p. 186.
  22. 1 2 Nemet-Nejat 1998, pp. 186–187.
  23. ↑ Nemet-Nejat 1998, pp. 186–188.
  24. ↑ Kramer 1963, p. 119.
  25. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Black & Green 1992, p. 76.
  26. 1 2 Kramer 1963, p. 121.
  27. ↑ Kramer 1963, pp. 119–121.
  28. ↑ Grottanelli & Mander 2005, p. 5,162a.
  29. ↑ Littleton 2005, pp. 480–482.
  30. 1 2 Littleton 2005, p. 482.
  31. 1 2 Schneider 2011, p. 58.
  32. ↑ Kramer 1963, p. 118.
  33. 1 2 Schneider 2011, pp. 58–59.
  34. 1 2 3 4 Schneider 2011, p. 59.
  35. 1 2 Archi 1990, p. 114.
  36. ↑ Black & Green 1992, p. 38.
  37. ↑ Black & Green 1992, p. 37.
  38. ↑ Black & Green 1992, p. 102.
  39. 1 2 3 Black & Green 1992, p. 98.
  40. ↑ Nemet-Nejat 1998, p. 185.
  41. ↑ McEvilley 2002, pp. 171–172.
  42. ↑ Röllig 1971, pp. 499–500.
  43. ↑ Tsumura 2005, p. 134.
  44. ↑ Delaporte 1996, p. 137.
  45. 1 2 3 Nemet-Nejat 1998, p. 203.
  46. ↑ Kramer 1963, pp. 118–122.
  47. 1 2 Rogers 1998, p. 13.
  48. ↑ Levenda 2008, p. 29.
  49. ↑ Levenda 2008, pp. 29–30.
  50. ↑ Kramer 1961, pp. 30–33.
  51. 1 2 3 Kramer 1961, pp. 37–40.
  52. ↑ Kramer 1961, pp. 37–41.
  53. ↑ Kramer, Samuel Noah (2020-03-05). Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary Achievement in the Third Millennium B.C. Pickle Partners Publishing. ISBN   978-1-83974-294-1.
  54. 1 2 3 Kramer 1961, p. 43.
  55. 1 2 3 Jacobsen 1946, pp. 128–152.
  56. ↑ Kramer 1961, p. 44.
  57. 1 2 Kramer 1961, pp. 44–45.
  58. ↑ Kramer 1961, p. 45.
  59. ↑ Kramer 1961, p. 46.
  60. ↑ Black, Cunningham & Robson 2006, p. 106.
  61. ↑ Leick 2013, p. 66.
  62. ↑ Leick 2013, p. 67.
  63. ↑ Kramer 1961, p. 97.
  64. 1 2 Kramer 1961, pp. 97–98.
  65. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Kramer 1961, p. 98.
  66. ↑ Dalley 1989, p. 109.
  67. ↑ Dalley 1989, pp. 109–111.
  68. ↑ Dalley 1989, pp. 109–110.
  69. ↑ Dalley 1989, pp. 110–111.
  70. ↑ Dalley 1989, p. 113.
  71. ↑ Dalley 1989, pp. 114–115.
  72. ↑ Dalley 1989, p. 115.
  73. 1 2 Dalley 1989, pp. 115–116.
  74. ↑ Dalley 1989, p. 116.
  75. 1 2 3 4 Kramer 1961, p. 53.
  76. ↑ Kramer 1961, pp. 51–53.
  77. 1 2 Green 2003, p. 37.
  78. 1 2 Hooke 2004.
  79. 1 2 Kramer 1961, p. 52.
  80. ↑ Kramer 1961, pp. 49–50.
  81. ↑ Kramer 1961, p. 50.
  82. 1 2 Kramer 1961, p. 51.
  83. 1 2 Penglase 1994, p. 68.
  84. ↑ Leick 1991, p. 9.
  85. ↑ Leick 1991, pp. 9–10.
  86. ↑ Black & Green 1992, p. 173.
  87. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Leick 1991, p. 10.
  88. 1 2 3 4 5 Oshima 2010, p. 145.
  89. 1 2 Oshima 2010, pp. 145–146.
  90. 1 2 3 4 5 Oshima 2010, p. 146.

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.