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Self-esteem stability refers to immediate feelings of self-esteem which, generally, will not be influenced by everyday positive or negative experiences. [1] In contrast, unstable self-esteem refers to fragile and vulnerable feelings of self-esteem which will be influenced by internally generated, such as reflecting on one's social life, and externally received evaluative information, for example a compliment or a failed course. [1] Rosenberg [2] makes a distinction of baseline instability and barometric instability. Baseline instability are long term fluctuations in self-esteem that occur slowly and over an extended period of time. For example, decreases in self-esteem level are common as children transition from the relatively safe environment of elementary school to the more turbulent middle school environment, often followed by slow but steady increases in self-esteem through the high school years. Barometric instability, on the other hand, reflects short term fluctuations in one's contextually based global self-esteem. This means that someone with an unstable self-esteem will value him/herself positively on one day, but negatively on the other, this can even vary with every situation. [3] One important feature of individuals with unstable self-esteem is how they can react very strongly on experiences that they view as relevant for their self-esteem, within this they can even see relevance for their self-esteem when there is not. Unstable self-esteem may take numerous forms. Some people may experience dramatic shifts from feeling very positively to very negatively about themselves, others may primarily fluctuate in the extent to which they feel positively or negatively about themselves. Another distinction made in the research on stability of self-esteem is between fragile and secure high self-esteem. Secure high self-esteem reflects positive feelings of self-worth that are well anchored and secure and that are positively associated with a wide range of psychological health and well-being indices. Fragile high self-esteem, however, reflects positive feelings of self-worth that are vulnerable to threat, as they require continual bolstering, protection, and validation through various self-protective or self-enhancement strategies.
Research on self-esteem in adolescence and adults has shown the importance of a stable self-esteem in terms of social-emotional functioning. Unstable self-esteem is negatively viewed and research has shown that an unstable self-esteem is an important predictor for internalizing and externalizing problems.[ clarification needed ] [4] For example, they found that self-esteem variability is a predictor of social anxiety, public self-consciousness, and self-perceptions that interpersonal problems reflect social avoidance. Self-esteem variability was also negatively associated with frequency of social interactions in the course of daily life. They concluded that self-esteem variability is associated with fear and avoidance of social contexts. Furthermore, they also found that self-esteem variability interacts with self-esteem in the prediction of depression. Self-esteem was most predictive of depression for persons high in self-esteem variability. According to them it seems reasonable to conclude from these and earlier findings that individuals may be vulnerable to depressive tendencies as a result of high variability in, and low levels of, self-esteem.
Several research has been done on the development of (in)stability of self-esteem. These studies provide converging evidence about the stability of self-esteem between the ages 6 to 83. There was found that stability is relatively low during early childhood (probably because of lack of cognitive growth), increases throughout adolescence and young adulthood, and then declines during midlife and old age. [5]
Little is known about the underlying causes of stability and change in self-esteem.
However some research has been done, for example on genetic and environmental influences in adolescence. [5] Genetic effects might account for stability, another possibility is that different genes may get turned on later in adolescence, which would result in genetic effects contributing to change.
Environmental factors could also play a role, such as stressful life events may lead to changes in self-esteem during adolescence. Results of a study by Kamakura [5] indicated that stability in self-esteem was due to genetic effect and in addition there was found that environmental factors partly explained stability in self-esteem.
It is however uncertain which aspects of non-shared environmental factors influence stability in self-esteem. Factors including overreliance on the evaluations, love, and approval of others, an impoverished self-concept, and excessive dependency needs have been implicated for why immediate feelings of self-worth of some individuals are highly unstable.
Furthermore, developmentally, harsh or controlling family environments are thought to promote fragile, unstable feelings of self-worth. [1] A father who is misogynistic – consciously or unconsciously – and who displays psychological manipulation, control etc. of the mother and child is also a major underlying factor.
Possessing a well-developed self-concept also is implicated in optimal psychological functioning. When self-knowledge is confused and conflicted it will fail to provide meaningful input into people's behaviours and reactions and instead promote heightened responsiveness to immediately salient situational cues and outcomes. When these cues and outcomes are negative, this heightened responsiveness can be particularly detrimental. Having a poorly developed self-concept may lead individuals to rely on and be more affected by specific evaluative information, thereby enhancing unstable self-esteem. [1]
There are two well-known measures of self-esteem instability. The Harter Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children (PSPCSA) [6] can just be used for children aged 4 to 7. The PSPCSA is focused on four scales: cognitive competence, physical competence, peer acceptance, and maternal acceptance. Every scale contains 6 items and each item contains two pictures of a certain action or activities (for example, a child doing a puzzle or playing with other children). A pictorial format engages a young child's interest, is understandable, sustains the child's attention, and leads to more meaningful responses. [6] For each item the tested child is read a brief statement about each child depicted in the pictures. The first task is to indicate which of the two children it is most like. The second task is to indicate how much it is like the child on the chosen picture, a lot (represented as a big circle) or a little (represented as a small circle). When conducting this test longitudinally (for example five days in a row) the stability of self-esteem can be measured, the higher the standard-deviation, the more unstable the self-esteem is. The second measurement is the Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSES). [7] This is a 10-item Likert-type scale designed to measure global self-esteem, but when taken longitudinally it can be used as a measure for self-esteem instability.
Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological development that generally occurs during the period from puberty to adulthood. Adolescence is usually associated with the teenage years, but its physical, psychological or cultural expressions may begin earlier or end later. Puberty typically begins during preadolescence, particularly in females. Physical growth and cognitive development can extend past the teens. Age provides only a rough marker of adolescence, and scholars have not agreed upon a precise definition. Some definitions start as early as 10 and end as late as 26. The World Health Organization definition officially designates an adolescent as someone between the ages of 10 and 19.
Self-esteem is confidence in one's own worth, abilities, or morals. Self-esteem encompasses beliefs about oneself as well as emotional states, such as triumph, despair, pride, and shame. Smith and Mackie define it by saying "The self-concept is what we think about the self; self-esteem, is the positive or negative evaluations of the self, as in how we feel about it ."
Shyness is the feeling of apprehension, lack of comfort, or awkwardness especially when a person is around other people. This commonly occurs in new situations or with unfamiliar people; a shy person may simply opt to avoid these situations. Although shyness can be a characteristic of people who have low self-esteem, the primary defining characteristic of shyness is a fear of what other people will think of a person's behavior. This fear of negative reactions such as being mocked, humiliated or patronized, criticized or rejected can cause a shy person to retreat. Stronger forms of shyness can be referred to as social anxiety or social phobia.
In the psychology of self, one's self-concept is a collection of beliefs about oneself. Generally, self-concept embodies the answer to the question "Who am I?".
Relational aggression, alternative aggression, or relational bullying is a type of aggression in which harm is caused by damaging someone's relationships or social status.
In psychology, self-efficacy is an individual's belief in their capacity to act in the ways necessary to reach specific goals. The concept was originally proposed by the psychologist Albert Bandura.
Self-determination theory (SDT) is a macro theory of human motivation and personality that concerns people's innate growth tendencies and innate psychological needs. It pertains to the motivation behind people's choices in the absence of external influences and distractions. SDT focuses on the degree to which human behavior is self-motivated and self-determined.
Personality development encompasses the dynamic construction and deconstruction of integrative characteristics that distinguish an individual in terms of interpersonal behavioral traits. Personality development is ever-changing and subject to contextual factors and life-altering experiences. Personality development is also dimensional in description and subjective in nature. That is, personality development can be seen as a continuum varying in degrees of intensity and change. It is subjective in nature because its conceptualization is rooted in social norms of expected behavior, self-expression, and personal growth. The dominant viewpoint in personality psychology indicates that personality emerges early and continues to develop across one's lifespan. Adult personality traits are believed to have a basis in infant temperament, meaning that individual differences in disposition and behavior appear early in life, potentially before language of conscious self-representation develop. The Five Factor Model of personality maps onto the dimensions of childhood temperament. This suggests that individual differences in levels of the corresponding personality traits are present from young ages.
Narcissism is a self–centered personality style characterized as having an excessive preoccupation with oneself and one's own needs, often at the expense of others.
In the study of psychology, neuroticism has been considered a fundamental personality trait. In the Big Five approach to personality trait theory, individuals with high scores for neuroticism are more likely than average to be moody and to experience such feelings as anxiety, worry, fear, anger, frustration, envy, jealousy, pessimism, guilt, depressed mood, and loneliness. Such people are thought to respond worse to stressors and are more likely to interpret ordinary situations, such as minor frustrations, as appearing hopelessly difficult. The responses can include maladaptive behaviors, such as dissociation, procrastination, substance use, etc., which aids in relieving the negative emotions and generating positive ones.
Splitting is the failure in a person's thinking to bring together the dichotomy of both perceived positive and negative qualities of something into a cohesive, realistic whole. It is a common defense mechanism wherein the individual tends to think in extremes. This kind of dichotomous interpretation is contrasted by an acknowledgement of certain nuances known as "shades of gray".
Meta-emotion is "an organized and structured set of emotions and cognitions about the emotions, both one's own emotions and the emotions of others". This broad definition of meta-emotion sparked psychologists' interest in the topic, particularly regarding parental meta-emotion philosophy.
Self-compassion is extending compassion to one's self in instances of perceived inadequacy, failure, or general suffering. Kristin Neff has defined self-compassion as being composed of three main elements – self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness.
Genealogical bewilderment is a term referring to potential identity problems that could be experienced by a child who was either fostered, adopted, or conceived via an assisted reproductive technology procedure such as surrogacy or gamete donation.
The Rosenberg self-esteem scale (RSES), developed by the sociologist Morris Rosenberg, is a self-esteem measure widely used in social science research. It uses a scale of 0–30, where a score less than 15 may indicate problematic low self-esteem. Although the instrument was developed for use with adolsecents, it has been widely used in reserch on adults.
Belongingness is the human emotional need to be an accepted member of a group. Whether it is family, friends, co-workers, a religion, or something else, some people tend to have an 'inherent' desire to belong and be an important part of something greater than themselves. This implies a relationship that is greater than simple acquaintance or familiarity.
In psychology, grandiosity is a sense of superiority, uniqueness, or invulnerability. It may be expressed by exaggerated beliefs regarding one's abilities, the belief that few other people have anything in common with oneself, and that one can only be understood by a few, very special people. The personality trait of grandiosity is principally associated with narcissistic personality disorder (NPD), but also is a feature in the occurrence and expression of antisocial personality disorder, and the manic and hypomanic episodes of bipolar disorder.
Ethnic identity development includes the identity formation in an individual's self-categorization in, and psychological attachment to, (an) ethnic group(s). Ethnic identity is characterized as part of one's overarching self-concept and identification. It is distinct from the development of ethnic group identities.
Social emotional development represents a specific domain of child development. It is a gradual, integrative process through which children acquire the capacity to understand, experience, express, and manage emotions and to develop meaningful relationships with others. As such, social emotional development encompasses a large range of skills and constructs, including, but not limited to: self-awareness, joint attention, play, theory of mind, self-esteem, emotion regulation, friendships, and identity development.
The most commonly used definition of school belonging comes from a 1993 academic article by researchers Carol Goodenow and Kathleen Grady, who describe school belonging as "the extent to which students feel personally accepted, respected, included, and supported by others in the school social environment." The construct of school belonging involves feeling connected with and attached to one's school. It also encompasses involvement and affiliation with one's school community. Conversely, students who do not feel a strong sense of belonging within their school environment are frequently described as being alienated or disaffected. There are a number of terms within educational research that are used interchangeably with school belonging, including school connectedness, school attachment, and school engagement.
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