The siege of Ctesiphon took place from January to March, 637 between the forces of Sasanian Empire and Rashidun Caliphate. Ctesiphon, located on the eastern bank of the Tigris, was one of the great cities of Persia, the imperial capital of the Parthian and Sassanid Empires. The Muslims managed to capture Ctesiphon ending the Persian rule over Mesopotamia.
After a Muslim victory in the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah, the Caliph Umar ruled that it was time to conquer the Sassanid Empire's capital of Ctesiphon. He knew that as long as the Persians had kept control of their main city, they would have retained the possibility, sooner or later, of arranging a new counterattack. Umar then ordered Sa`d ibn Abī Waqqās, commander of Islamic leader in Iraq, to march on Ctesiphon.
In December 636, Sa'd marched to Ctesiphon with a caliphate army of 15,000 soldiers. The Shahanshah Sassanid Yazdegerd III, fearing an invasion, acted quickly when he received news from his intelligence. He then deployed detachments of troops in the city and along the road leading to Ctesiphon to slow the enemy advance and gain enough time to set up the necessary defenses. When Sa'd learned of the Sasanid detachments on the main road leading to Ctesiphon, he decided to increase the mobility of his army; thus, Sa'd divided the rest of his army into four bodies, under the command of 'Abd Allāh bin Muṭ'im, Shuraḥbīl bin al-Simṭ, Hashim ibn Utba and Khālid bin 'Urfuṭa. Sa'd himself positioned himself in the second body.
Zuhra ibn al-Hawiyya al-Tamimi assumed the guidance of the avant-garde, composed only of the cavalry, and received orders to move quickly against the main defensive positions of the enemy along the road to Ctesiphon. There he had arrangements to deal with many Sassanian detachments and, if his forces encountered any significant concentration of the Sasanian army, he has to wait until it he is aided by the bulk of the Arab-Islamic army.
Zuhra's military body left in advance and occupied Najaf, where he expected the rest of the troops to reach him. Then he crossed the Euphrates and proceeded along the road to Ctesiphon. He waited in Burs, after the victorious Battle of Burs, at the right bank of the Euphrates for the bulk of the Muslim troops to reach him. The next step was Babylon, on the opposite bank of the Euphrates, a fortified city where it was known there was a large concentration of Sassanian forces. The Battle of Babylon was strategically important and the access key for Sawad, the territory between the Tigris and the Euphrates.
By mid-December of 636, Muslims gained the Euphrates and camped outside Babylon. The Sassanian forces in Babylon are said to have been commanded by Piruz Khosrow, Hormuzan, Mihran Razi and Nakhiragan. Whatever the reason, it is in fact that the Sassanids were unable to oppose a significant resistance to the Muslims. Hormuzan withdrew with his forces to his province of Ahwaz, after which the other Persian generals returned their units and retreated to the north.
After the withdrawal of Sassanian forces, citizens of Babylon formally surrendered. They were granted protection to the unusual condition of jizya's payment. Some collaborated with the victorious Muslims against the Sassanids and provided valuable information on the disposition of Persian forces. Some Babylon engineers are said to have been employed for the construction of roads and bridges. While the bulk of the Muslims stationed at Babylon, Zuhra received from Sa'd the order of chasing the Sassanids who had withdrawn from the city before they could concentrate somewhere else and oppose a new resistance. The Arab-Muslim avant-garde at the command of Zuhra attacked the Persians and struck their backs at Sūrā, breaking into Sasanian and prompting them to withdraw to Deir Ka'b. Zuhra then marched on Deir Ka'b, where he defeated a Sasanian detachment, providing protection to the people under the same conditions accorded to the inhabitants of Babylon.
At the beginning of January 637, the Muslim avant-garde of Zuhra reached Kūthā, seventeen kilometers from Ctesiphon, where the Persians made the last attempt to oppose the Arabs. Sassanid detachment had among its members a dehqan, named Shahryār, who was killed in a duel by a Muslim belonging to probably the elite of the Mubarizun.
In the second week of January 637, the Muslim avant-garde reached Sābāṭ (Valashabad), at 7 km. about the Sassanian capital, without finding any Persian garrisons, even though it normally stays there. The population was afforded protection under the same conditions as paying jizya. The Muslims then occupied the whole area to the door of Ctesiphon.[1]
The city of Ctesiphon was the result of two different urban centers, so much so that the Arabs called it "al-Madā'in" or the cities. The main was on the eastern shore of the Tigris, while the western part was known as Bahurasīr (Veh-Ardashir/Seleucia).
The Muslim advance on Ctesiphon was postponed due to the detachment on the road to the capital. This gave Yazdegerd III enough time to prepare for a city defense. It was expected that the Muslims would follow the traditional road to Ctesiphon and appear on the side of Bahurasīr. Knowing this, the city prepared well for the defense, preparing a deep trench around the perimeter of the capital. As the Arab avant-garde approached Bahurasīr, the Persian garrison, launched large stones and boulders with its ballistic and catapult. The Muslims withdrew outside the range of bullets and laid siege to the city.
The siege began in January 637 and lasted for two months. Bahurasīr was providing supplies to the surrounding countryside, although receiving supplies from Ctesiphon, on the other side of the Tigris. The Muslims began for the first time to carry the siege with the equipment provided to them by the Persian engineers who had accepted the Islamic power.
In March 637, the Sassanian garrison was pulled out of the city in a determined attempt to break the siege. According to reports, the Sassanid forces were led by a lion who had been specially trained for war, who quickly advanced towards the Muslim lines, astonishing the horses, who fled in fear. It is said that Hashim ibn Utba ran towards the animal and gave it a blow so well that he immediately fell dead. Sa'd bin Abī Waqqāṣ advanced the forces and kissed Hāshim on his forehead, in admiration for his unseen act of heroism. Although they do not know who commanded Sassanian forces, Muslim chroniclers say that the Persian commander was killed in duel with Zuhra. Later on, that same evening, Zuhra was injured by an arrow and the hero of the march on Ctesiphon died. He was inundated with all military honors.[note 1]
After the fighting was stopped, a Persian emissary went to the Muslim camp with a message from Sassanian Shāhanshāh. It is said that the emissary has said:
Our Emperor asks you if you would be in favor of a peace based on the fact that the Tigris function as a demarcation line between you and us, so that what extends to the east of it will remain ours and what is west is yours. if this does not satisfy your country hunger, then nothing can satisfy you.
Sa'd bin Abī Waqqāṣ, however, insisted on the usual conditions of payment of jizya by the surrendered persons or the sword, that is, of the ultimate blood-fighting. The Sassanids chose the sword.
While closing Ctesiphon in their own defense, the Sassanian forces and Bahurasīr residents abandoned most of the city the following day, destroying all the bridges on the Tigris behind them. They removed every boat from the western bank of the river and anchored them on the eastern shore. Ctesiphon was monitored from its southern end to the natural barrier made by the Tigris, while a trench was dug around the rest of the suburbs. With this measure, Yazdegerd alleged that he could resist the Muslims until he could arrange reinforcements from other provinces of the Empire and break the narrow circle from the besiegers. When the Muslims occupied Bahurasīr, the city was empty.[1]
Fall of Ctesiphon
Taq-i Kisra, the ruined arch that is the only existing structure in Ctesiphon, was built by Khosrow I after the Lazic War in 540, which was part of the Persian imperial palace and served as a mosque after the Muslim conquest in 637.
After the occupation of Bahurasīr, only about 750 meters of the width of the Tigris separated the Muslims and Ctesiphon. However, the river was full and there were no boats available for Muslims that would allow them to cross. The Sassanian forces at Ctesiphon were commanded by generals Mihran and Farrukhzad, brother of General Rostam Farrokhzād, killed in the battle of al-Qādisiyyah.
The Persian volunteers who had accepted the power of the Muslims showed Sa'd a downstream site where they could cross the river, but it was not too sure if such a transaction would be possible, given the high water level. The following morning Sa'd asked volunteers to cross the river on horseback. At first a group of six volunteer knights, at the command of Asim ibn 'Amr al-Tamimi entered the river to wade through it. A detachment of Sassanid cavalry was sent to intercept them, thus entering into the waters of the Tigris. In the clash that followed, the Muslims had the best, finally putting foot on the eastern shore. The first group of volunteers was immediately followed by other horse-drawn formations. The infantry was probably also sent on the eastern shore of the Tigris with boats moored on the shore.
The Sassanian forces were too inferior to offer effective resistance to Muslims, and so Ctesiphon fell. Led by Asim ibn 'Amr, Muslim forces entered the Sassanian capital. The columns entered the center of the city without finding any Persian resistance. They reached the White Palace (Taq-i Kisra), home of the Persian government, and occupied it. Ctesiphon fell in the Arab hands without any battle.[1]
Aftermath
After occupying the city, Sa'd bin Abī Waqqāṣ proclaimed an amnesty for every Persian left. A delegation of people's representatives knew the terms of the surrender and had to resign themselves to the usual jizya payment. An act of peace was signed and the citizens were urged to return to their usual occupations. Sa'd moved to the White Palace and established his headquarters. In the great inner courtyard, a mosque was built.
Shāhanshāh Yazdegerd III had, in the meantime, been sheltering at Hulwan, carrying much of the imperial treasure and all that precious he could take. Sa'd then sent armed columns in different directions to intercept Sassanian refugees, after which a huge booty came into the Muslim hands. Although the Muslim forces conquered the Persian provinces, even as far as Khuzistan, their advance was slowed down by a severe drought in Arabia in 638 and by plagues in southern Iraq and in Syria in 639. After these events, the caliph Umar decided to reorganize the territories conquered and decided to stop the offensive.
The Sassanids continued their struggle to regain the lost territories, but their powerful army was defeated in the Battle of Nahavand, fought in December 641. In 651, the last Shāhanshāh, Yazdegerd III, was assassinated at the time of the caliphate Uthman. After Yazdegerd III's death the Sassanian Persian Empire ceased to exist.
Year 637 (DCXXXVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 637 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.
Ctesiphon was an ancient city in modern Iraq, on the eastern bank of the Tigris, about 35 kilometres (22 mi) southeast of Baghdad. Ctesiphon served as a royal capital of the Iranian empires for over eight hundred years, in the Parthian and Sasanian periods. Ctesiphon was the capital of the Sasanian Empire from 226–637 until the Muslim conquest of Persia in 651 AD.
Yazdegerd III was the last Sasanian King of Kings of Iran from 632 to 651. His father was Shahriyar and his grandfather was Khosrow II.
The Muslim conquest of Persia, also called the Muslim conquest of Iran, the Arab conquest of Persia, or the Arab conquest of Iran, was a major military campaign undertaken by the Rashidun Caliphate between 632 and 654. As part of the early Muslim conquests, which had begun under Muhammad in 622, it led to the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the eventual decline of Zoroastrianism, which had been predominant throughout Persia as the nation's official religion. The persecution of Zoroastrians by the early Muslims during and after this conflict prompted many of them to flee eastward to India, where they were granted refuge by various kings.
Khvārvarān was a military quarter of the Sasanian Empire. Intensive irrigation agriculture of the lower Tigris and Euphrates and of tributaries such as the Diyala and the Karun formed the empire's main resource base.
Rostam Farrokhzād was a dynast from the Ispahbudhan family, who served as the spahbed of the northwestern quarter (kust) of Adurbadagan under the Sasanian monarchs Boran and Yazdegerd III. Rostam is remembered as a historical figure, a character in the Persian epic poem Shahnameh, and as a touchstone of many Iranian nationalists.
Al-Qādisiyyah is a historical city in southern Mesopotamia, southwest of al-Hillah and al-Kūfah in Iraq. It is most famous as the site of the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah in c. 636, in which an Arab Muslim army defeated a larger Sasanian army.
The Sasanian Empire, officially Ērānšahr, was the last pre-Islamic Iranian empire. Named after the House of Sasan, it endured for over four centuries, from 224 to 651, making it the second longest-lived Persian imperial dynasty after the directly preceding Arsacid dynasty of Parthia. It fell to the Rashidun Caliphate during the early Muslim conquests, which marked the beginning of a monumental societal shift by initiating the Islamization of Iran.
The Battle of Walaja was fought in Mesopotamia in May 633 between the Rashidun Caliphate army under Khalid ibn al-Walid and Al-Muthanna ibn Haritha against the Sassanid Empire and its Arab allies.
The Muslim conquest of the Levant, or Arab conquest of Syria, was a 634–638 CE invasion of Byzantine Syria by the Rashidun Caliphate. A part of the wider Arab-Byzantine Wars, as well as the larger Muslim colonial project, the Levant was brought under Arab Muslim rule and developed into the provincial region of Bilad al-Sham. Clashes between the Arabs and Byzantines on the southern Levantine borders of the Byzantine Empire had occurred during the lifetime of Muhammad, with the Battle of Muʿtah in 629 CE. However, the actual conquest did not begin until 634, two years after Muhammad's death. It was led by the first two Rashidun caliphs who succeeded Muhammad: Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab. During this time, Khalid ibn al-Walid was the most important leader of the Rashidun army.
The Battle of Ullais was fought between the forces of the Rashidun Caliphate and the Sasanian Persian Empire in the middle of June 633 AD in Iraq, and is sometimes referred to as the Battle of Blood River since, as a result of the battle, there were enormous amounts of Persian Sasanian and Arab Christian casualties.
Umar was the second Rashidun Caliph and reigned during 634–644. Umar's caliphate is notable for its vast conquests. Aided by brilliant field commanders, he was able to incorporate present-day Iraq, Iran, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Syria, Jordan, Palestine, Lebanon, Egypt, and parts of Afghanistan, Turkmenistan and south western Pakistan into the Caliphate. During his reign, the Byzantines lost more than three fourths of their territory and in Persia, Umar became the king (ruler) of Iran after the fall of the Sassanid Empire.
Hormuzan was a Persian aristocrat who served as the governor of Khuzestan, and was one of the Sasanian military officers at the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah. He was later taken prisoner by the Muslims after the fall of Shushtar in 642. Two years later, he was accused of the assassination of the Rashidun caliph Umar, and was killed by Ubayd Allah, the deceased caliph's son.
The Battle of al-Qadisiyyah was an armed conflict which took place in 636 CE between the Rashidun Caliphate and the Sasanian Empire. It occurred during the early Muslim conquests and marked a decisive victory for the Rashidun army during the Muslim conquest of Persia.
The Battle of Jalula was fought between the Sasanian Empire and the Rashidun Caliphate soon after conquest of Ctesiphon.
Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas ibn Wuhayb al-Zuhri was an Arab Muslim commander. He was the founder of Kufa and served as its governor under Umar ibn al-Khattab. He played a leading role in the Muslim conquest of Persia and was a close companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.
Al-Qaʿqāʿ ibn ʿAmr ibn Mālik Al-Tamīmī was an Arab Muslim commander and general in the Rashidun army who belonged to the tribe of Banu Tamim. He and his tribe converted to Islam possibly during the time of Ahnaf ibn Qais. He is known as a successful military commander who took part in two important victorious battles in the early Muslim Conquest, the Battle of Yarmouk against the Byzantine Empire and the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah against the Sassanian Empire which was led by Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas. The Caliph Abu Bakr praised him as an equal to eleven thousand men so in return the caliph's successor, caliph Umar, only sent Qaʿqāʿ and a handful of bodyguards in the first wave of reinforcements to Al-Qadissiyah. Qaʿqāʿ was one of the most illustrious military figures of his era.
The Arab conquest of Mesopotamia was carried out by the Rashidun Caliphate from 633 to 638 AD. The Arab Muslim forces of Caliph Umar first attacked Sasanian territory in 633, when Khalid ibn al-Walid invaded Mesopotamia, which was the political and economic centre of the Sasanian state. From 634 to 636 AD, following the transfer of Khalid to the Byzantine front in the Levant, the hold of Arab forces on the region weakened under the pressure of Sasanian counterattacks. A second major Arab offensive in 636 and ended in January 638 with the capture of Mosul and the consolidation of Arab control over and exclusion of Sasanid influence from the whole Mosul-Tikrit region.
The Battle of Burs was a minor engagement in 636 AD at Burs or Birs Nimrud, now in central Iraq, during the Muslim conquest of the Sassanid Empire. The Rāshidūn commander, Zuhra ibn al-Ḥawiyya, defeated Busbuhra, the Sassanid commander of the town, in single combat, and the garrison offered little further resistance.
Battle of Babylon was fought between the forces of Sassanid Empire and Rashidun Caliphate in 636. Muslim Arabs won the encounter to maintain their pursuit of conquering Ctesiphon.
References
1 2 3 عبد العزيز بن عبد الله الحميدي (2005). الخلفاء الراشدون مواقف وعبر (in Arabic). دار الدعوة. p.471-493.
↑ نهاية الارب 228 وجمهرة الانساب 357 وقلب جزيرة العرب 153 واللباب 513. (in Arabic)
Ashtiani, Abbas Iqbal and Pirnia, Hassan. Tarikh-e Iran ( History of Iran ), 3rd ed. Tehran, Kayyam Publishing House, 1973.
Muḥammad ibn Jarīr al-Ṭabarī, Abū Ja'far Muḥammad. The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah and the conquest of Syria and Palestine. Edited and translated by Yohanan Friedmann. SUNY series in Middle Eastern Studies. Albany, State University of New York Press, 1992.
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