Stephan Lewandowsky

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Stephan Lewandowsky
Stephan Lewandowsky, 2015-2.jpg
Lewandowsky in 2016
Born (1958-06-03) 3 June 1958 (age 66)
Berlin
Citizenship
  • Australia
  • United Kingdom
Alma mater Washington College, University of Toronto
Known forResearch into the public's acceptance of science and belief in conspiracy theories
Awards Royal Society Wolfson Research Merit Award [1]
Scientific career
Fields Psychology
Institutions University of Bristol, University of Western Australia
Thesis Priming in recognition memory for categorised lists  (1985)
Doctoral advisor Bennet Murdock

Stephan Lewandowsky (born 3 June 1958) is an Australian psychologist. He has worked in both the United States and Australia, and is currently based at the University of Bristol, UK, where he is the chair of cognitive psychology at the School of Psychological Science. [2] His research, which originally pertained to computer simulations of people's decision-making processes, recently has focused on the public's understanding of science and why people often embrace beliefs that are sharply at odds with scientific evidence.

Contents

Education and career

Lewandowsky received his bachelor's degree from Washington College in 1980, followed by an M.A. in 1981 and a PhD in 1985, both from the University of Toronto. He served as an assistant professor of psychology at the University of Oklahoma from 1990 to 1994, and as associate professor for one year after that. In 1995, he joined the University of Western Australia, where he became the Winthrop Professor of Psychology in 2000. [3] He remained there until April 2013, when he joined the University of Bristol. [4] In 2014, he was named the first Digital Content Editor at the Psychonomic Society. [5]

In 2015, Lewandowsky was elected a fellow of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. [6]

Research

Correction of misinformation

Lewandowsky has published a number of studies examining people's belief in misinformation. In 2005, he was the lead author of a study which investigated people's beliefs in assertions about the Iraq War that had been retracted officially, and which examined people's beliefs about these assertions in Australia, the United States, and Germany. He and his co-authors found that American participants in the study persisted in believing the assertions even after being informed that they had been retracted. [7] Lewandowsky told the Wall Street Journal that the original misinformation already had become a part of the Americans' mental worldview by the time it was retracted. He also noted that "People who were not suspicious of the motives behind the war continued to rely on misinformation." [8] In 2012, Lewandowsky published an article in Psychological Science in the Public Interest which examined the literature on misinformation and efforts to correct it. [9] He found a considerable amount of speculation but little concrete research into the area. [10]

With John Cook, Lewandowsky wrote "The Debunking Handbook", [11] a review of research on debunking falsehoods and a guide to better practices for doing so. [12] Much of "The Debunking Handbook" focuses on "backfire effects", whereby telling people that they are wrong often reinforces their prior beliefs, rather than weakening them. An updated Debunking Handbook 2020 [13] tries to represent the consensus of the field.

Climate change and conspiracy theories

In 2012, Lewandowsky put forward what would later become one of his best-known studies regarding public opinion on climate change. The survey examined data from more than 1,000 readers of climate science blogs, taken from online questionnaires posted there. Lewandowsky approached five climate sceptic blogs to ask them to post the questionnaire, but they all declined to do so. [14] [15] The study was accepted by Psychological Science on 7 July 2012, and published in the May 2013 issue of the journal with the title, "NASA Faked the Moon Landing—Therefore, (Climate) Science Is a Hoax". Based on a survey of visitors to global warming related blogs, Lewandowsky and his two co-authors concluded that belief in free-market economics was associated with being more likely to reject not only the mainstream scientific view of global warming, but also the mainstream scientific position on whether HIV causes AIDS and whether tobacco smoking causes lung cancer. The study also concluded that believing in a "cluster of conspiracy theories"—such as that the FBI was responsible for the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.—was also associated with being more likely to reject the consensus view on global warming. [16]

Gary Marcus wrote that the paper's findings "fit in with a longer literature on what has come to be known as 'motivated reasoning.'" [17] The reaction to the paper from global warming sceptics was overwhelmingly negative, with Joanne Nova referring to it as "an ad hom argument taken to its absurd extreme, rebadged as 'science'." [18]

Later in 2013, Lewandowsky published another paper on a similar topic in Nature Climate Change . In that study, he and his co-authors told the study participants that 97% of climate scientists believe humans are causing global warming, and found that this significantly increased the proportion of people who believed it as well. They also reported that the effect was most discernible for those with free-market views. [19] [20] These findings contributed to what is now known as the Gateway Belief Model. Also in 2013, Lewandowsky and co-authors conducted another survey in which he examined the relationship between believing in conspiracy theories (such as 9/11 conspiracy theories) and rejection of various forms of science. They found that believing in such conspiracy theories was strongly associated with being more likely to reject all forms of science, such as climate change science, the safety of genetically modified foods, and the safety of vaccines. [21] [22]

"Recursive fury"

On 28 March 2013, Lewandowsky published "Recursive fury: Conspiracist ideation in the blogosphere in response to research on conspiracist ideation" in the journal Frontiers in Psychology . This paper described the reaction of climate change deniers to pre-publication versions of the "NASA Faked the Moon Landing—Therefore, (Climate) Science Is a Hoax" study that he had submitted to Psychological Science in 2012. His analysis found that, of the hypotheses generated by climate change deniers in response to his 2012 study, "many...exhibited conspiratorial content and counterfactual thinking." [23]

The Frontiers in Psychology journal received immediate complaints, and took the paper down while it carried out an investigation. [24] The paper was retracted with a notice published in March 2014, which stated: [25]

In the light of a small number of complaints received following publication of the original research article cited above, Frontiers carried out a detailed investigation of the academic, ethical, and legal aspects of the work. This investigation did not identify any issues with the academic and ethical aspects of the study. It did, however, determine that the legal context is insufficiently clear and therefore Frontiers wishes to retract the published article. The authors understand this decision, while they stand by their article and regret the limitations on academic freedom which can be caused by legal factors. [25]

Ars Technica reported that its questions were referred by the publishers to their lawyer, who told Ars: "Frontiers is concerned about solid science, and it's obviously a regret when you have to retract an article that is scientifically and ethically sound." Freedom of Information requests made by DeSmogBlog had obtained copies of the complaints, which included allegations of misconduct: some used legal terms such as "defamatory". [26]

Staff of the Australian Psychological Society wrote to Lewandowsky expressing concern "that some scientific journals feel sufficiently threatened by potential liability fears to not publish articles with 'inconvenient information' about climate change." [26] Elaine McKewon—who was one of the peer-reviewers of the Lewandowsky paper, in addition to being a research associate at the Australian Centre for Independent Journalism, University of Technology, Sydney [24] —said that she was "profoundly disappointed" by its retraction, and that, "Shortly after publication, Frontiers received complaints from climate deniers who claimed they had been libeled in the paper and threatened to sue the journal unless the paper was retracted." McKewon was quoted as saying that the journal had "caved in at the first pushback from the climate change denial community". [27] The Sydney Morning Herald reported that academics had described the retraction as having "a chilling effect on research". The University of Western Australia published the paper online after doing its own risk analysis; their lawyer, Kim Heitman, said that there was no reason to take it down.

After media reports about this retraction, the journal's Editorial Director Costanza Zucca and Executive Editor Fred Fenter made a joint statement on the journal's blog that "Frontiers did not 'cave in to threats'; in fact, Frontiers received no threats." The statement said that the main reason for retraction was insufficient protection for the rights of the studied subjects. [28] Ars Technica reported that this statement appeared to differ from the retraction notice, and according to one of the authors of the paper an anonymised version had been produced to meet the privacy concerns. Lewandowsky said that there had been a legally binding agreement on the original notice, and what he took "exception to is their latest statement, which is incompatible with the signed agreement and complete news to us". [29] The paper is available at the web page of the University of Western Australia. [30]

The paper was later republished in the Journal of Social and Political Psychology along with additional data, under the title "Recurrent fury: Conspiratorial Discourse in the Blogosphere Triggered by Research on the Role of Conspiracist Ideation in Climate Denial". [31] [32]

Perception of uncertainty

In May 2014, Lewandowsky published a two-part study on the relationship between uncertainty and the dangers of climate change, in which he argued that policymakers who argue that the scientific understanding of climate change is too uncertain to act are mistaken. Instead, the study argues that "on the contrary, uncertainty implies that the problem is more likely to be worse than expected in the absence of that uncertainty." [33] Lewandowsky told Salon that these studies showed that "uncertainty also increases the likelihood of exceeding 'safe' temperature limits and the probability of failing to reach mitigation targets." [34]

Global warming hiatus

A 2015 study by Lewandowsky, James Risbey, and Naomi Oreskes found that there is no substantive evidence of a global warming hiatus. [35]

Psychological features cluster identified

In its March 2019 edition, Scientific American published an article about his work that posited that people drawn to conspiracy theories share some psychological characteristics that may be clustered. [36] A secondary title to the article asserted: "Baseless theories threaten our safety and democracy. It turns out that specific emotions make people prone to such thinking".

Selected works

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conspiracy theory</span> Attributing events to less-probable plots

A conspiracy theory is an explanation for an event or situation that asserts the existence of a conspiracy, when other explanations are more probable. The term generally has a negative connotation, implying that the appeal of a conspiracy theory is based in prejudice, emotional conviction, or insufficient evidence. A conspiracy theory is distinct from a conspiracy; it refers to a hypothesized conspiracy with specific characteristics, including but not limited to opposition to the mainstream consensus among those who are qualified to evaluate its accuracy, such as scientists or historians.

A debunker is a person or organization that exposes or discredits claims believed to be false, exaggerated, or pretentious. The term is often associated with skeptical investigation of controversial topics such as UFOs, claimed paranormal phenomena, cryptids, conspiracy theories, alternative medicine, religion, exploratory or fringe areas of scientific, or pseudoscientific research.

In academic publishing, a retraction is a mechanism by which a published paper in an academic journal is flagged for being seriously flawed to the extent that their results and conclusions can no longer be relied upon. Retracted articles are not removed from the published literature but marked as retracted. In some cases it may be necessary to remove an article from publication, such as when the article is clearly defamatory, violates personal privacy, is the subject of a court order, or might pose a serious health risk to the general public.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Misinformation</span> Incorrect or misleading information

Misinformation is incorrect or misleading information. Misinformation can exist without specific malicious intent; disinformation is distinct in that it is deliberately deceptive and propagated. Misinformation can include inaccurate, incomplete, misleading, or false information as well as selective or half-truths. In January 2024, the World Economic Forum identified misinformation and disinformation, propagated by both internal and external interests, to "widen societal and political divides" as the most severe global risks within the next two years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Naomi Oreskes</span> American historian of science

Naomi Oreskes is an American historian of science. She became Professor of the History of Science and Affiliated Professor of Earth and Planetary Sciences at Harvard University in 2013, after 15 years as Professor of History and Science Studies at the University of California, San Diego.

The Archives of Sexual Behavior is a bimonthly peer-reviewed medical journal in sexology. It is the official publication of the International Academy of Sex Research.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change denial</span> Denial of the scientific consensus on climate change

Climate change denial is a form of science denial characterized by rejecting, refusing to acknowledge, disputing, or fighting the scientific consensus on climate change. Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none. Climate change denial includes unreasonable doubts about the extent to which climate change is caused by humans, its effects on nature and human society, and the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions. To a lesser extent, climate change denial can also be implicit when people accept the science but fail to reconcile it with their belief or action. Several studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism, pseudoscience, or propaganda.

Frontiers in Psychology is a peer-reviewed open-access academic journal covering all aspects of psychology. It was established in 2010 and is published by Frontiers Media, a controversial company that is included in Jeffrey Beall's list of "potential, possible, or probable predatory publishers". The editor-in-chief is Axel Cleeremans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Retraction Watch</span> Blog covering scientific paper retractions

Retraction Watch is a blog that reports on retractions of scientific papers and on related topics. The blog was launched in August 2010 and is produced by science writers Ivan Oransky and Adam Marcus. Its parent organization is the Center for Scientific Integrity, a US 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization.

Frontiers Media SA is a publisher of peer-reviewed, open access, scientific journals currently active in science, technology, and medicine. It was founded in 2007 by Kamila and Henry Markram. Frontiers is based in Lausanne, Switzerland, with offices in the United Kingdom, Spain, and China. In 2022, Frontiers employed more than 1,400 people, across 14 countries. All Frontiers journals are published under a Creative Commons Attribution License.

Timothy Francis Ball was a British-born Canadian public speaker and writer who was a professor in the Department of Geography at the University of Winnipeg from 1971 until his retirement in 1996. Subsequently Ball became active in promoting rejection of the scientific consensus on global warming, giving public talks and writing opinion pieces and letters to the editor for Canadian newspapers.

Big Pharma conspiracy theories are conspiracy theories that claim that pharmaceutical companies as a whole, especially big corporations, act in dangerously secretive and sinister ways that harm patients. This includes concealing effective treatments, perhaps even to the point of intentionally causing and/or worsening a wide range of diseases, in the pursuit of higher profits and/or other nefarious goals. The general public supposedly lives in a state of ignorance, according to such claims.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">GMO conspiracy theories</span> Conspiracy theories related to GMOs

GMO conspiracy theories are conspiracy theories related to the production and sale of genetically modified crops and genetically modified food. These conspiracy theories include claims that agribusinesses, especially Monsanto, have suppressed data showing that GMOs cause harm, deliberately cause food shortages to promote the use of GM food, or have co-opted government agencies such as the United States Food and Drug Administration or scientific societies such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Belief perseverance is maintaining a belief despite new information that firmly contradicts it.

The gateway belief model (GBM) suggests that public perception of the degree of expert or scientific consensus on an issue functions as a so-called "gateway" cognition. Perception of scientific agreement is suggested to be a key step towards acceptance of related beliefs. Increasing the perception that there is normative agreement within the scientific community can increase individual support for an issue. A perception of disagreement may decrease support for an issue.

Brandolini's law, also known as the bullshit asymmetry principle, is an internet adage coined in 2013 by Alberto Brandolini, an Italian programmer, that emphasizes the effort of debunking misinformation, in comparison to the relative ease of creating it in the first place. The law states:

The amount of energy needed to refute bullshit is an order of magnitude bigger than that needed to produce it.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sander van der Linden</span> Social psychologist

Sander L. van der Linden is a Dutch social psychologist and author who is Professor of Social Psychology at the University of Cambridge. He studies the psychology of social influence, risk, human judgment, and decision-making. He is particularly known for his research on the psychology of social issues, such as fake news, COVID-19, and climate change.

Disinformation attacks are strategic deception campaigns involving media manipulation and internet manipulation, to disseminate misleading information, aiming to confuse, paralyze, and polarize an audience. Disinformation can be considered an attack when it occurs as an adversarial narrative campaign that weaponizes multiple rhetorical strategies and forms of knowing—including not only falsehoods but also truths, half-truths, and value-laden judgements—to exploit and amplify identity-driven controversies. Disinformation attacks use media manipulation to target broadcast media like state-sponsored TV channels and radios. Due to the increasing use of internet manipulation on social media, they can be considered a cyber threat. Digital tools such as bots, algorithms, and AI technology, along with human agents including influencers, spread and amplify disinformation to micro-target populations on online platforms like Instagram, Twitter, Google, Facebook, and YouTube.

Misinformation related to immunization and the use of vaccines circulates in mass media and social media in spite of the fact that there is no serious hesitancy or debate within mainstream medical and scientific circles about the benefits of vaccination. Unsubstantiated safety concerns related to vaccines are often presented on the internet as being scientific information. A large proportion of internet sources on the topic are mostly inaccurate which can lead people searching for information to form misconceptions relating to vaccines.

References

  1. ↑ "Two Bristol academics receive Wolfson Research Merit Awards". University of Bristol . 26 April 2013. Retrieved 11 February 2014.
  2. ↑ "Professor Stephan Lewandowsky". University of Bristol . Retrieved 11 February 2014.
  3. ↑ Personal Website of Stephan Lewandowsky
  4. ↑ "The School is pleased to announce the appointment of Professor Stephan Lewandowsky". University of Bristol. 29 April 2013. Retrieved 11 February 2014.
  5. ↑ "Stephan Lewandowsky Named Digital Content Editor at the Psychonomic Society". Psychonomic Society.
  6. ↑ "Ten Distinguished Scientists and Scholars Named Fellows of Committee for Skeptical Inquiry - CSI". csicop.org. Retrieved 15 October 2015.
  7. ↑ Lewandowsky, Stephan; Stritzke, Werner G.K.; Oberauer, Klaus; Morales, Michael (March 2005). "Memory for Fact, Fiction, and Misinformation". Psychological Science. 16 (3): 190–195. doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00802.x. PMID   15733198. S2CID   28750884.
  8. ↑ Begley, Sharon (4 February 2005). "People Believe a 'Fact' That Fits Their Views Even if It's Clearly False". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
  9. ↑ Lewandowsky, S.; Ecker, U. K. H.; Seifert, C. M.; Schwarz, N.; Cook, J. (17 September 2012). "Misinformation and Its Correction: Continued Influence and Successful Debiasing". Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 13 (3): 106–131. doi: 10.1177/1529100612451018 . PMID   26173286. S2CID   42633.
  10. ↑ Konnikova, Maria (16 May 2014). "I Don't Want to Be Right". The New Yorker. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
  11. ↑ Cook, John; Lewandowsky, Stephan (2012). The debunking handbook (Version 2 ed.). St. Lucia, Australia. ISBN   978-0-646-56812-6. OCLC   768864362.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  12. ↑ Stafford, Tom (13 November 2014). "How to debunk falsehoods". BBC. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
  13. ↑ Lewandowsky, Stephan (2020). Debunking Handbook 2020. Databrary. doi:10.17910/b7.1182. S2CID   242409070.
  14. ↑ Corner, Adam (27 July 2012). "Are climate sceptics more likely to be conspiracy theorists?". The Guardian . Retrieved 11 February 2014.
  15. ↑ Markman, Art (23 May 2013). "Who Rejects Evidence of Global Climate Change?". Huffington Post . Retrieved 13 February 2014.
  16. ↑ Lewandowsky, Stephan; Oberauer, Klaus (2013). "NASA Faked the Moon Landing—Therefore, (Climate) Science Is a Hoax". Psychological Science . 24 (5). SAGE Publications: 622–633. doi:10.1177/0956797612457686. PMID   23531484. S2CID   23921773.
  17. ↑ Marcus, Gary (10 April 2013). "What a Conspiracy Theorist Believes". The New Yorker . Retrieved 11 February 2014.
  18. ↑ Lombrozo, Tania (10 December 2012). "What Do Aliens, Climate Change And Princess Di Have in Common?". NPR . Retrieved 11 February 2014.
  19. ↑ Lewandowsky, Stephan; Gignac, Gilles E. (2013). "The pivotal role of perceived scientific consensus in acceptance of science". Nature Climate Change . 3 (4): 399–404. Bibcode:2013NatCC...3..399L. doi:10.1038/nclimate1720.
  20. ↑ Mooney, Chris (18 October 2013). "How Do You Get People to Give a Damn About Climate Change?". Mother Jones . Retrieved 11 February 2014.
  21. ↑ Lewandowsky, S.; Gignac, G. E.; Oberauer, K. (2013). "The Role of Conspiracist Ideation and Worldviews in Predicting Rejection of Science". PLOS ONE. 8 (10): e75637. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...875637L. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0075637 . PMC   3788812 . PMID   24098391.
  22. ↑ Mooney, Chris (2 October 2013). "If You Distrust Vaccines, You're More Likely to Think NASA Faked the Moon Landings". Mother Jones . Retrieved 12 February 2014.
  23. ↑ Lewandowsky, Stephan; Cook, John; Oberauer, Klaus; Marriott, Michael (2013). "Recursive Fury: Conspiracist Ideation in the Blogosphere in Response to Research on Conspiracist Ideation" (PDF). Frontiers in Psychology. 4: 73. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00073 . PMC   3600613 . PMID   23508808. (Retracted, see doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00293, PMID   24683402,  Retraction Watch)
  24. 1 2 McKewon, Elaine (9 April 2014). "The journal that gave in to climate deniers". Grist . Retrieved 26 April 2014.
  25. 1 2 Frontiers in Psychology Editorial Office (27 March 2014). "Retraction: Recursive fury: Conspiracist ideation in the blogosphere in response to research on conspiracist ideation: Personality and Social Psychology". Frontiers in Psychology. 5: 293. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00293 . PMC   3967708 . PMID   24683402.
  26. 1 2 Timmer, John (21 March 2014). "Journal pulls paper due to "legal context" created by climate contrarians". Ars Technica. Retrieved 27 April 2014.
  27. ↑ Hannam, Peter (2 April 2014). "'Conspiracist' climate change study withdrawn amid legal threats". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 27 April 2014.
  28. ↑ Zucca, Constanza (4 April 2014). "Retraction of Recursive Fury: A Statement". Frontiers in Psychology . Retrieved 5 April 2014.
  29. ↑ Timmer, John (8 April 2014). "Legal or privacy problems? Journal changes its tune on climate paper". Ars Technica. Retrieved 27 April 2014.
  30. ↑ uwa.edu.au/recursivefury, accessed 26 April 2014
  31. ↑ Lewandowsky, Stephan; Cook, John; Oberauer, Klaus; Brophy, Scott; Lloyd, Elisabeth A.; Marriott, Michael (8 July 2015). "Recurrent fury: Conspiratorial discourse in the blogosphere triggered by research on the role of conspiracist ideation in climate denial". Journal of Social and Political Psychology. 3 (1). Leibniz Institute for Psychology (ZPID): 142–178. doi: 10.5964/jspp.v3i1.443 . ISSN   2195-3325.
  32. ↑ For confirmation, see Uscinski, Joseph E.; Douglas, Karen; Lewandowsky, Stephan (26 September 2017), "Climate Change Conspiracy Theories", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Climate Science, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.328, ISBN   978-0-19-022862-0, the paper was later retitled, additional data were reported, and it was re-published in 2015 in a different journal.
  33. ↑ Lewandowsky, Stephan; Risbey, James S.; Smithson, Michael; Newell, Ben R.; Hunter, John (4 April 2014). "Scientific uncertainty and climate change: Part I. Uncertainty and unabated emissions" (PDF). Climatic Change. 124 (1–2): 21–37. Bibcode:2014ClCh..124...21L. doi:10.1007/s10584-014-1082-7. S2CID   28333080.
  34. ↑ Rosenberg, Paul (19 April 2014). "Why climate deniers are winning: The twisted psychology that overwhelms scientific consensus". Salon . Retrieved 5 July 2014.
  35. ↑ Lewandowsky, Stephan; Risbey, James S.; Oreskes, Naomi (24 November 2015). "On the definition and identifiability of the alleged "hiatus" in global warming". Scientific Reports. 5: 16784. Bibcode:2015NatSR...516784L. doi:10.1038/srep16784. PMC   4657026 . PMID   26597713.
  36. ↑ Moyer, Melinda Wenner, People Drawn to Conspiracy Theories Share a Cluster of Psychological Features, Scientific American, March 2019
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