Stoned ape theory

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Psilocybe cubensis mushrooms in Coyopolan, Veracruz, Mexico. McKenna and his proponents place these psilocybin mushrooms as the central force in the theory. Cubensis.natural.habitat-2.jpg
Psilocybe cubensis mushrooms in Coyopolan, Veracruz, Mexico. McKenna and his proponents place these psilocybin mushrooms as the central force in the theory.

The stoned ape theory is a controversial hypothesis first proposed by American ethnobotanist and mystic Terence McKenna in his 1992 book Food of the Gods . [1] [2] The idea claims that the cognitive revolution was caused by the addition of psilocybin mushrooms, specifically the mushroom Psilocybe cubensis, into the human diet [3] around 100,000 years ago. Using evidence largely based on studies from Roland L. Fischer et al. from the 1960s and 1970s, he attributed much of the mental strides made by humans during the cognitive revolution to the effects of psilocybin intake found by Fischer.

Contents

McKenna's argument has largely been ignored by the scientific community, [4] who cite numerous alleged discrepancies within his theory and claim that his conclusions were arrived at via a fundamental misunderstanding of Fischer's studies. McKenna's theory was not based on scientific evidence. [5]

Overview

In his book, McKenna argued that due to desertification in Africa, humans retreated to the shrinking tropical forests, following cattle herds whose dung attracted the insects that he states were certainly a part of the human diet at the time. According to his hypothesis, humans would have detected Psilocybe cubensis from this due to it often growing in cowpats. [1]

According to McKenna, access to and ingestion of mushrooms was an evolutionary advantage to humans' omnivorous hunter-gatherer ancestors, [3] [1] also providing humanity's first religious impulse. He believed that psilocybin mushrooms were the "evolutionary catalyst" from which language, projective imagination, the arts, religion, philosophy, science, and all of human culture sprang.

Evidence

To support his claim, McKenna used studies from the Hungarian-American psychopharmacologist Roland L. Fischer dating back to the 1960s and 1970s to underline the purported effects psychedelics would have had on mankind.

McKenna claimed that minor doses of psilocybin improve visual acuity, including edge detection, which bettered the hunting skills of early primates and thus resulted in greater food supply and reproduction. At higher doses, McKenna contended that the mushrooms would increase libido, attention, and energy, resulting in greater reproductive success. At even higher doses, the psilocybin would promote greater social bonding within early human communities as well as group sex activities, resulting in greater genetic diversity from the mixing of genes. McKenna also theorized that at this level of psilocybin intake, it would trigger activity in "language-forming region of the brain", resulting in the mental development of visions and music and kickstarting the development of language by enriching their troop signals. According to McKenna, psilocybin would also chip away at internal ego and make religious matters the forefront of the mind. [1]

Variations

Ayahuasca topped with chacruna. Some proponents believe that instead of psilocybin mushrooms being behind the cognitive revolution that DMT-containing psychedelics such as Ayahuasca were. Ayahuasca and chacruna cocinando.jpg
Ayahuasca topped with chacruna. Some proponents believe that instead of psilocybin mushrooms being behind the cognitive revolution that DMT-containing psychedelics such as Ayahuasca were.

Some who hold that the use of drugs played a pivotal role in human development argue that it was not psilocybin that initiated greater cognitive development amongst humans, but was instead spurred by other psychedelics such as DMT-containing substances, in particular, Ayahuasca. Ayahuasca has been shown to increase trait openness significantly by one standard deviation. [6] [7] Additionally, it has shown to increase interest in abstract ideas and visual acuity when consumed. [8] This has led to it being hypothesized that some sort of DMT-containing substance was the culprit behind the cognitive revolution. [6] However, psilocin, the active product of psilocybin metabolism, is 4-hydroxy DMT and oral ayahuasca has nearly identical pharmacology and pharmacokinetics as ingesting psilocybin mushrooms.

Reception

The stoned ape theory had been widely criticized by the greater scientific community. McKenna's theory was labeled as overly speculative by much of the academic community [9] and misrepresenting the studies of psychopharmacologist Roland L. Fischer, whose research was frequently cited by McKenna as evidence for the purported effects of the mushrooms on early humans. Additionally, many pointed to groups such as the Aztecs or various Amazonian tribes whose usage of psychedelic substances does not reflect any of the evolutionary advantages that McKenna argued would emerge from using psilocybin-containing substances. [10] [11]

See also

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psilocybin</span> Chemical compound found in some species of mushrooms

Psilocybin, also known as 4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (4-PO-DMT), and formerly sold under the brand name Indocybin, is a naturally occurring psychedelic prodrug compound produced by more than 200 species of fungi. Psilocybin is itself biologically inactive but is quickly converted by the body to psilocin, which has mind-altering effects similar, in some aspects, to those of other classical psychedelics. Effects include euphoria, hallucinations, changes in perception, a distorted sense of time, and perceived spiritual experiences. It can also cause adverse reactions such as nausea and panic attacks.

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<i>Psilocybe cubensis</i> Species of fungus

Psilocybe cubensis, commonly known as the magic mushroom, shroom, golden halo, golden teacher, cube, or gold cap, is a species of psilocybin mushroom of moderate potency whose principal active compounds are psilocybin and psilocin. It belongs to the fungus family Hymenogastraceae and was previously known as Stropharia cubensis. It is the best-known psilocybin mushroom due to its wide distribution and ease of cultivation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Terence McKenna</span> American ethnobotanist and mystic (1946–2000)

Terence Kemp McKenna was an American ethnobotanist and mystic who advocated for the responsible use of naturally occurring psychedelic plants. He spoke and wrote about a variety of subjects, including psychedelic drugs, plant-based entheogens, shamanism, metaphysics, alchemy, language, philosophy, culture, technology, ethnomycology, environmentalism, and the theoretical origins of human consciousness. He was called the "Timothy Leary of the '90s", "one of the leading authorities on the ontological foundations of shamanism", and the "intellectual voice of rave culture".

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psilocybin mushroom</span> Mushrooms containing psychoactive indole alkaloids

Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms,shrooms, or broadly as hallucinogenic mushrooms, are a polyphyletic informal group of fungi that contain psilocybin, which turns into psilocin upon ingestion. The most potent species are members of genus Psilocybe, such as P. azurescens, P. semilanceata, and P. cyanescens, but psilocybin has also been isolated from approximately a dozen other genera, including Panaeolus, Inocybe, Pluteus, Gymnopilus, and Pholiotina.

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Dennis Jon McKenna is an American ethnopharmacologist, research pharmacognosist, lecturer and author. He is the brother of well-known psychedelics proponent Terence McKenna and is a founding board member and the director of ethnopharmacology at the Heffter Research Institute, a non-profit organization concerned with the investigation of the potential therapeutic uses of psychedelic medicines.

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References

  1. 1 2 3 4 McKenna, Terence (1999). Food of the Gods: The Search for the Original Tree of Knowledge : a Radical History of Plants, Drugs and Human Evolution. Rider. ISBN   978-0-7126-7038-8.
  2. ↑ "Psilocybin, the Mushroom, and Terence McKenna". www.vice.com. 12 August 2014. Retrieved 2022-12-10.
  3. 1 2 Letcher, Andy (2008-02-19). Shroom: A Cultural History of the Magic Mushroom. Harper Collins. ISBN   978-0-06-082829-5.
  4. ↑ Nutt, David; Castle, David (2023-03-07). Psychedelics as Psychiatric Medications. Oxford University Press. p. 2. ISBN   978-0-19-267852-2.
  5. ↑ Helvenston, Patricia A. (May 2015). "Psilocybin-containing mushrooms, upper palaeolithic rock art and the neuropsychological model". Rock Art Research . 32 (1): 101.
  6. 1 2 Netzband, Nige; Ruffell, Simon; Linton, S.; Tsang, W. F.; Wolff, T. (2020-10-01). "Modulatory effects of ayahuasca on personality structure in a traditional framework". Psychopharmacology. 237 (10): 3161–3171. doi:10.1007/s00213-020-05601-0. ISSN   1432-2072. PMC   7524857 . PMID   32700023.
  7. ↑ Mendes Rocha, Juliana; Rossi, Giordano Novak; Osório, Flávia L.; Bouso Saiz, José Carlos; Silveira, Gabriela De Oliveira; Yonamine, Mauricio; Crevelin, Eduardo José; Queiroz, Maria Eugênia; Cecílio Hallak, Jaime E.; Dos Santos, Rafael Guimarães (2021). "Effects of Ayahuasca on Personality: Results of Two Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trials in Healthy Volunteers". Frontiers in Psychiatry . 12: 688439. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.688439 . ISSN   1664-0640. PMC   8377499 . PMID   34421675.
  8. ↑ Hamill, Jonathan; Hallak, Jaime; Dursun, Serdar M.; Baker, Glen (August 6, 2021). "Ayahuasca: Psychological and Physiologic Effects, Pharmacology and Potential Uses in Addiction and Mental Illness". Current Neuropharmacology. 17 (2): 108–128. doi:10.2174/1570159X16666180125095902. ISSN   1570-159X. PMC   6343205 . PMID   29366418.
  9. ↑ Olsen, Oscar. "The Stoned Ape Hypothesis, A Contemporary Reappraisal".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  10. ↑ Pinchbeck, Daniel (2003-08-12). Breaking Open the Head: A Psychedelic Journey into the Heart of Contemporary Shamanism. Crown. ISBN   978-0-7679-0743-9.
  11. ↑ War & the Noble Savage. Dreamflesh. ISBN   978-0-9554196-2-1.
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