Subwavelength-diameter optical fibre

Last updated

A subwavelength-diameter fibre wraps light around human hair. LightHair.jpg
A subwavelength-diameter fibre wraps light around human hair.

A subwavelength-diameter optical fibre (SDF or SDOF) is an optical fibre whose diameter is less than the wavelength of the light being propagated through it. An SDF usually consists of long thick parts (same as conventional optical fibres) at both ends, transition regions (tapers) where the fibre diameter gradually decreases down to the subwavelength value, and a subwavelength-diameter waist, which is the main acting part. Due to such a strong geometrical confinement, the guided electromagnetic field in an SDF is restricted to a single mode called fundamental. In usual optical fibres, light both excites and feels shear and longitudinal bulk elastic waves, giving rise to forward-guided acoustic wave Brillouin scattering and backward-stimulated Brillouin scattering. In a subwavelength-diameter optical fibre, the situation changes dramatically. [1]

Contents

Name

There is no general agreement on how these optical elements are to be named; different groups prefer to emphasize different properties of such fibres, sometimes even using different terms. The names in use include subwavelength waveguide, [2] subwavelength optical wire, [3] subwavelength-diameter silica wire, [4] subwavelength diameter fibre taper, [5] [6] (photonic) wire waveguide, [7] [8] photonic wire, [9] [10] [11] photonic nanowire, [12] [13] [14] optical nanowires, [15] optical fibre nanowires, [16] tapered (optical) fibre, [17] [18] [19] [20] fibre taper, [21] submicron-diameter silica fibre, [22] [23] ultrathin optical fibres, [24] optical nanofibre, [25] [26] optical microfibres, [27] submicron fibre waveguides, [28] micro/nano optical wires (MNOW).

The term waveguide can be applied not only to fibres, but also to other waveguiding structures such as silicon photonic subwavelength waveguides. [29] The term submicron is often synonymous to subwavelength, as the majority of experiments are carried out using light with a wavelength between 0.5 and 1.6 μm. [12] All the names with the prefix nano- are somewhat misleading, since it is usually applied to objects with dimensions on the scale of nanometers (e.g., nanoparticle, nanotechnology). The characteristic behaviour of the SDF appears when the fibre diameter is about half of the wavelength of light. That is why the term subwavelength is the most appropriate for these objects.[ original research? ]

Manufacturing

An SDF is usually created by tapering a commercial, usually step-index, optical fibre. Special pulling machines accomplish the process.

An optical fibre usually consists of a core, a cladding, and a protective coating. Before pulling a fibre, its coating is removed (i.e., the fibre is stripped). The ends of the bare fibre are fixed onto movable "translation" stages on the machine. The middle of the fibre (between the stages) is then heated with a flame (such as of burning oxyhydrogen) or a laser beam; at the same time, the translation stages move in opposite directions. The glass melts and the fibre is elongated, while its diameter decreases. [30]

Using the described method, waists between 1 and 10 mm in length and diameters down to 100 nm are obtained. In order to minimize the losses of light to unbound modes, one must control the pulling process so that the tapering angles satisfy the adiabatic condition [31] by not exceeding a certain value, usually in the order of a few milliradian. For this purpose, a laser beam is coupled to the fibre being pulled and the output light is monitored by an optical power meter throughout the whole process. A good-quality SDF would transmit over 95% of the coupled light, [30] most losses being due to scattering on the surface imperfections or impurities at the waist region.

If the fibre being tapered is uniformly pulled over a stationary heating source, the resulting SDF has an exponential radius profile. [32] In many cases it is convenient to have a cylindrical waist region, that is the waist of a constant thickness. Fabrication of such a fibre requires continuous adjustments of the hotzone by moving the heating source, [30] and the fabrication process becomes significantly longer.

Handling

Being extremely thin, an SDF is also extremely fragile. Therefore, an SDF is usually mounted onto a special frame immediately after pulling and is never detached from this frame. The common way of securing a fibre to the mount is by a polymer glue such as an epoxy resin or an optical adhesive.

Dust, however, may attach to the surface of an SDF. If significant laser power is coupled into the fibre, the dust particles will scatter light in the evanescent field, heat up, and may thermally destroy the waist. In order to prevent this, SDFs are pulled and used in dust-free environments such as flowboxes or vacuum chambers. For some applications, it is useful to immerse the freshly tapered SDF into purified water and thus protect the waist from contamination.

Applications

Applications include sensors, [33] nonlinear optics, fibre couplers, atom trapping and guiding, [26] [34] [35] [36] quantum interface for quantum information processing, [37] [38] all-optical switches, [39] optical manipulation of dielectric particles. [40] [41]

Subwavelength-diameter optical fibers have various applications owing to the special conditions of confining light in nanoscale dimensions. Some of the key usages are:

Sensing

The SDFs increase the sensitivities to environment factors like temperature and humidity.

Nonlinear Optics

They play an important role in second-order harmonic generation and in all-optical switching processes, important in photonics and quantum communication.

Atom Trapping and Quantum Interface

These fibers make the manipulation of atoms and photons possible; thus, they are very vital in quantum information processing.

Optical Manipulation

SDFs are used for moving nanoparticles in optical tweezers, useful in nanotechnology.

Their broad applications make them fundamental in advanced optics and quantum technologies.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Photonic crystal</span> Periodic optical nanostructure that affects the motion of photons

A photonic crystal is an optical nanostructure in which the refractive index changes periodically. This affects the propagation of light in the same way that the structure of natural crystals gives rise to X-ray diffraction and that the atomic lattices of semiconductors affect their conductivity of electrons. Photonic crystals occur in nature in the form of structural coloration and animal reflectors, and, as artificially produced, promise to be useful in a range of applications.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Optical ring resonators</span> Set of waveguides including a closed loop

An optical ring resonator is a set of waveguides in which at least one is a closed loop coupled to some sort of light input and output. The concepts behind optical ring resonators are the same as those behind whispering galleries except that they use light and obey the properties behind constructive interference and total internal reflection. When light of the resonant wavelength is passed through the loop from the input waveguide, the light builds up in intensity over multiple round-trips owing to constructive interference and is output to the output bus waveguide which serves as a detector waveguide. Because only a select few wavelengths will be at resonance within the loop, the optical ring resonator functions as a filter. Additionally, as implied earlier, two or more ring waveguides can be coupled to each other to form an add/drop optical filter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Photonic-crystal fiber</span> Class of optical fiber based on the properties of photonic crystals

Photonic-crystal fiber (PCF) is a class of optical fiber based on the properties of photonic crystals. It was first explored in 1996 at University of Bath, UK. Because of its ability to confine light in hollow cores or with confinement characteristics not possible in conventional optical fiber, PCF is now finding applications in fiber-optic communications, fiber lasers, nonlinear devices, high-power transmission, highly sensitive gas sensors, and other areas. More specific categories of PCF include photonic-bandgap fiber, holey fiber, hole-assisted fiber, and Bragg fiber. Photonic crystal fibers may be considered a subgroup of a more general class of microstructured optical fibers, where light is guided by structural modifications, and not only by refractive index differences. Hollow-core fibers (HCFs) are a related type of optical fiber which bears some resemblance to holey optical fiber.

An optical waveguide is a physical structure that guides electromagnetic waves in the optical spectrum. Common types of optical waveguides include optical fiber waveguides, transparent dielectric waveguides made of plastic and glass, liquid light guides, and liquid waveguides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Double-clad fiber</span>

Double-clad fiber (DCF) is a class of optical fiber with a structure consisting of three layers of optical material instead of the usual two. The inner-most layer is called the core. It is surrounded by the inner cladding, which is surrounded by the outer cladding. The three layers are made of materials with different refractive indices.

A fiber laser is a laser in which the active gain medium is an optical fiber doped with rare-earth elements such as erbium, ytterbium, neodymium, dysprosium, praseodymium, thulium and holmium. They are related to doped fiber amplifiers, which provide light amplification without lasing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Silicon photonics</span> Photonic systems which use silicon as an optical medium

Silicon photonics is the study and application of photonic systems which use silicon as an optical medium. The silicon is usually patterned with sub-micrometre precision, into microphotonic components. These operate in the infrared, most commonly at the 1.55 micrometre wavelength used by most fiber optic telecommunication systems. The silicon typically lies on top of a layer of silica in what is known as silicon on insulator (SOI).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Supercontinuum</span>

In optics, a supercontinuum is formed when a collection of nonlinear processes act together upon a pump beam in order to cause severe spectral broadening of the original pump beam, for example using a microstructured optical fiber. The result is a smooth spectral continuum. There is no consensus on how much broadening constitutes a supercontinuum; however researchers have published work claiming as little as 60 nm of broadening as a supercontinuum. There is also no agreement on the spectral flatness required to define the bandwidth of the source, with authors using anything from 5 dB to 40 dB or more. In addition the term supercontinuum itself did not gain widespread acceptance until this century, with many authors using alternative phrases to describe their continua during the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Slot-waveguide</span>

A slot-waveguide is an optical waveguide that guides strongly confined light in a subwavelength-scale low refractive index region by total internal reflection.

The Mamyshev 2R regenerator is an all-optical regenerator used in optical communications. In 1998, Pavel V. Mamyshev of Bell Labs proposed and patented the use of the self-phase modulation (SPM) for single channel optical pulse reshaping and re-amplification. More recent applications target the field of ultrashort high peak-power pulse generation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nematicon</span>

In optics, a nematicon is a spatial soliton in nematic liquid crystals (NLC). The name was invented in 2003 by G. Assanto. and used thereafter Nematicons are generated by a special type of optical nonlinearity present in NLC: the light induced reorientation of the molecular director. This nonlinearity arises from the fact that the molecular director tends to align along the electric field of light. Nematicons are easy to generate because the NLC dielectric medium exhibits the following properties:

Microstructured optical fibers (MOF) are optical fiber waveguides where guiding is obtained through manipulation of waveguide structure rather than its index of refraction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hybrid plasmonic waveguide</span>

A hybrid plasmonic waveguide is an optical waveguide that achieves strong light confinement by coupling the light guided by a dielectric waveguide and a plasmonic waveguide. It is formed by separating a medium of high refractive index from a metal surface by a small gap.

Richard Magee Osgood Jr. was an American applied and pure physicist. He was Higgins Professor of Electrical Engineering and Applied Physics at Columbia University.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plasmonics</span> Use of plasmons for data transmission in circuits

Plasmonics or nanoplasmonics refers to the generation, detection, and manipulation of signals at optical frequencies along metal-dielectric interfaces in the nanometer scale. Inspired by photonics, plasmonics follows the trend of miniaturizing optical devices, and finds applications in sensing, microscopy, optical communications, and bio-photonics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ravindra Kumar Sinha (physicist)</span> Indian physicist and administrator

Prof. R K Sinha is the Vice Chancellor of Gautam Buddha University, Greater Noida, Gautam Budh Nagar under Uttar Pradesh Government since January 2022. He was the Director of the CSIR-Central Scientific Instruments Organisation (CSIR-CSIO) Sector-30C, Chandigarh-160 030, India. He has been a Professor - Applied Physics, Dean-Academic [UG] & Chief Coordinator: TIFAC-Center of Relevance and Excellence in Fiber Optics and Optical Communication, Mission REACH Program, Technology Vision-2020, Govt. of India Delhi Technological University Bawana Road, Delhi-110042, India.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jonathan C. Knight</span> British physicist (born 1964)

Jonathan C. Knight, is a British physicist. He is the Pro Vice-Chancellor (Research) for the University of Bath where he has been Professor in the Department of Physics since 2000, and served as head of department. From 2005 to 2008, he was founding Director of the university's Centre for Photonics and Photonic Materials.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tapered double-clad fiber</span> Type of optical fiber

A tapered double-clad fiber (T-DCF) is a double-clad optical fiber which is formed using a specialised fiber drawing process, in which temperature and pulling forces are controlled to form a taper along the length of the fiber. By using pre-clad fiber preforms both the fiber core and the inner and outer cladding layers vary in diameter and thickness along the full length of the fiber. This tapering of the fiber enables the combination of the characteristics of conventional 8–10 μm diameter double-clad single-mode fibers to propagate light in fundamental mode with those of larger diameter (50–100 μm) double-clad multi-mode fibers used for optical amplification and lasing. The result is improved maintenance of pulse fidelity compared to conventional consistent diameter fiber amplifiers. By virtue of the large cladding diameter T-DCF can be pumped by optical sources with very poor brightness factor such as laser diode bars or even VECSELs matrices, significantly reducing the cost of fiber lasers/amplifiers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Luc Thévenaz</span> Swiss physicist who specializes in fibre optics

Luc Thévenaz is a Swiss physicist who specializes in fibre optics. He is a professor of physics at EPFL and the head of the Group for Fibre Optics School of Engineering.

In photonics, a meta-waveguide is a physical structures that guides electromagnetic waves with engineered functional subwavelength structures. Meta-waveguides are the result of combining the fields of metamaterials and metasurfaces into integrated optics. The design of the subwavelength architecture allows exotic waveguiding phenomena to be explored.

References

  1. ↑ Beugnot, Jean-Charles; Lebrun, Sylvie; Pauliat, Gilles; Maillotte, Hervé; Laude, Vincent; Sylvestre, Thibaut (2014-10-24). "Brillouin light scattering from surface acoustic waves in a subwavelength-diameter optical fibre". Nature Communications. 5 (1): 5242. doi:10.1038/ncomms6242. ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   4220458 . PMID   25341638. Creative Commons by small.svg  This article incorporates textfrom this source, which is available under the CC BY 4.0 license.
  2. ↑ Foster, M. A.; Gaeta, A. L. (2004). "Ultra-low threshold supercontinuum generation in sub-wavelength waveguides". Optics Express. 12 (14): 3137–3143. Bibcode:2004OExpr..12.3137F. doi: 10.1364/OPEX.12.003137 . PMID   19483834. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  3. ↑ Jung, Y.; Brambilla, G.; Richardson, D. J. (2008). "Broadband single-mode operation of standard optical fibers by using a sub-wavelength optical wire filter" (PDF). Optics Express. 16 (19): 14661–14667. Bibcode:2008OExpr..1614661J. doi:10.1364/OE.16.014661. PMID   18795003. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  4. ↑ Tong, L.; Gattass, R. R.; Ashcom, J. B.; He, S.; Lou, J.; Shen, M.; Maxwell, I.; Mazur, E. (2003). "Subwavelength-diameter silica wires for low-loss optical wave guiding" (PDF). Nature. 426 (6968): 816–819. Bibcode:2003Natur.426..816T. doi:10.1038/nature02193. PMID   14685232. S2CID   15048914.
  5. ↑ Mägi, E. C.; Fu, L. B.; Nguyen, H. C.; Lamont, M. R.; Yeom, D. I.; Eggleton, B. J. (2007). "Enhanced Kerr nonlinearity in sub-wavelength diameter As2Se3 chalcogenide fiber tapers". Optics Express. 15 (16): 10324–10329. Bibcode:2007OExpr..1510324M. doi: 10.1364/OE.15.010324 . PMID   19547382. S2CID   14870791. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  6. ↑ Zhang, L.; Gu, F.; Lou, J.; Yin, X.; Tong, L. (2008). "Fast detection of humidity with a subwavelength-diameter fiber taper coated with gelatin film". Optics Express. 16 (17): 13349–13353. Bibcode:2008OExpr..1613349Z. doi: 10.1364/OE.16.013349 . PMID   18711572. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  7. ↑ Liang, T. K.; Nunes, L. R.; Sakamoto, T.; Sasagawa, K.; Kawanishi, T.; Tsuchiya, M.; Priem, G. R. A.; Van Thourhout, D.; Dumon, P.; Baets, R.; Tsang, H. K. (2005). "Ultrafast all-optical switching by cross-absorption modulation in silicon wire waveguides". Optics Express. 13 (19): 7298–7303. Bibcode:2005OExpr..13.7298L. doi:10.1364/OPEX.13.007298. hdl: 1854/LU-327594 . PMID   19498753. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  8. ↑ Espinola R, Dadap J, Osgood R Jr, McNab S, Vlasov Y (2005). "C-band wavelength conversion in silicon photonic wire waveguides". Optics Express. 13 (11): 4341–4349. Bibcode:2005OExpr..13.4341E. doi: 10.1364/OPEX.13.004341 . PMID   19495349. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  9. ↑ Lizé, Y. K.; Mägi, E. C.; Ta'Eed, V. G.; Bolger, J. A.; Steinvurzel, P.; Eggleton, B. (2004). "Microstructured optical fiber photonic wires with subwavelength core diameter". Optics Express. 12 (14): 3209–3217. Bibcode:2004OExpr..12.3209L. doi: 10.1364/OPEX.12.003209 . PMID   19483844. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  10. ↑ Zheltikov, A. (2005). "Gaussian-mode analysis of waveguide-enhanced Kerr-type nonlinearity of optical fibers and photonic wires". Journal of the Optical Society of America B. 22 (5): 1100. Bibcode:2005JOSAB..22.1100Z. doi:10.1364/JOSAB.22.001100. Closed Access logo transparent.svg
  11. ↑ Konorov, S. O.; Akimov, D. A.; Serebryannikov, E. E.; Ivanov, A. A.; Alfimov, M. V.; Dukel'Skii, K. V.; Khokhlov, A. V.; Shevandin, V. S.; Kondrat'Ev, Y. N.; Zheltikov, A. M. (2005). "High-order modes of photonic wires excited by the Cherenkov emission of solitons". Laser Physics Letters. 2 (5): 258–261. Bibcode:2005LaPhL...2..258K. doi:10.1002/lapl.200410176. S2CID   122277596. Closed Access logo transparent.svg
  12. 1 2 Foster, M. A.; Turner, A. C.; Lipson, M.; Gaeta, A. L. (2008). "Nonlinear optics in photonic nanowires". Optics Express. 16 (2): 1300–1320. Bibcode:2008OExpr..16.1300F. doi: 10.1364/OE.16.001300 . PMID   18542203. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  13. ↑ Wolchover, N. A.; Luan, F.; George, A. K.; Knight, J. C.; Omenetto, F. G. (2007). "High nonlinearity glass photonic crystal nanowires". Optics Express. 15 (3): 829–833. Bibcode:2007OExpr..15..829W. doi: 10.1364/OE.15.000829 . PMID   19532307. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  14. ↑ Tong, L.; Hu, L.; Zhang, J.; Qiu, J.; Yang, Q.; Lou, J.; Shen, Y.; He, J.; Ye, Z. (2006). "Photonic nanowires directly drawn from bulk glasses". Optics Express. 14 (1): 82–87. Bibcode:2006OExpr..14...82T. doi: 10.1364/OPEX.14.000082 . PMID   19503319. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  15. ↑ Siviloglou, G. A.; Suntsov, S.; El-Ganainy, R.; Iwanow, R.; Stegeman, G. I.; Christodoulides, D. N.; Morandotti, R.; Modotto, D.; Locatelli, A.; De Angelis, C.; Pozzi, F.; Stanley, C. R.; Sorel, M. (2006). "Enhanced third-order nonlinear effects in optical AlGaAs nanowires". Optics Express. 14 (20): 9377–9384. Bibcode:2006OExpr..14.9377S. doi: 10.1364/OE.14.009377 . PMID   19529322. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  16. ↑ "Optical Fibre Nanowires and Related Devices Group". University of Southampton. Archived from the original on 2007-02-20.
  17. ↑ Dumais, P.; Gonthier, F.; Lacroix, S.; Bures, J.; Villeneuve, A.; Wigley, P. G. J.; Stegeman, G. I. (1993). "Enhanced self-phase modulation in tapered fibers". Optics Letters. 18 (23): 1996. Bibcode:1993OptL...18.1996D. doi:10.1364/OL.18.001996. PMID   19829470. Closed Access logo transparent.svg
  18. ↑ Cordeiro, C. M. B.; Wadsworth, W. J.; Birks, T. A.; Russell, P. S. J. (2005). "Engineering the dispersion of tapered fibers for supercontinuum generation with a 1064 nm pump laser". Optics Letters. 30 (15): 1980–1982. Bibcode:2005OptL...30.1980C. doi:10.1364/OL.30.001980. PMID   16092239. Closed Access logo transparent.svg
  19. ↑ Dudley, J. M.; Coen, S. (2002). "Numerical simulations and coherence properties of supercontinuum generation in photonic crystal and tapered optical fibers" (PDF). IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics. 8 (3): 651–659. Bibcode:2002IJSTQ...8..651D. doi:10.1109/JSTQE.2002.1016369. Closed Access logo transparent.svg
  20. ↑ Kolesik, M.; Wright, E. M.; Moloney, J. V. (2004). "Simulation of femtosecond pulse propagation in sub-micron diameter tapered fibers". Applied Physics B. 79 (3): 293–300. doi:10.1007/s00340-004-1551-1. S2CID   123400021. Closed Access logo transparent.svg
  21. ↑ Wadsworth, W. J.; Ortigosa-Blanch, A.; Knight, J. C.; Birks, T. A.; Man, T. -P. M.; Russell, P. S. J. (2002). "Supercontinuum generation in photonic crystal fibers and optical fiber tapers: A novel light source". Journal of the Optical Society of America B. 19 (9): 2148. Bibcode:2002JOSAB..19.2148W. doi:10.1364/JOSAB.19.002148. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  22. ↑ Shi, L.; Chen, X.; Liu, H.; Chen, Y.; Ye, Z.; Liao, W.; Xia, Y. (2006). "Fabrication of submicron-diameter silica fibers using electric strip heater". Optics Express. 14 (12): 5055–5060. Bibcode:2006OExpr..14.5055S. doi: 10.1364/OE.14.005055 . PMID   19516667. S2CID   12286605. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  23. ↑ Mägi, E.; Steinvurzel, P.; Eggleton, B. (2004). "Tapered photonic crystal fibers". Optics Express. 12 (5): 776–784. Bibcode:2004OExpr..12..776M. doi: 10.1364/OPEX.12.000776 . PMID   19474885. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  24. ↑ Sagué, G.; Baade, A.; Rauschenbeutel, A. (2008). "Blue-detuned evanescent field surface traps for neutral atoms based on mode interference in ultrathin optical fibres". New Journal of Physics. 10 (11): 113008. arXiv: 0806.3909 . Bibcode:2008NJPh...10k3008S. doi:10.1088/1367-2630/10/11/113008. S2CID   18601905. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  25. ↑ Nayak, K. P.; Melentiev, P. N.; Morinaga, M.; Kien, F. L.; Balykin, V. I.; Hakuta, K. (2007). "Optical nanofiber as an efficient tool for manipulating and probing atomic Fluorescence". Optics Express. 15 (9): 5431–5438. Bibcode:2007OExpr..15.5431N. doi: 10.1364/OE.15.005431 . PMID   19532797. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  26. 1 2 Morrissey, Michael J.; Deasy, Kieran; Frawley, Mary; Kumar, Ravi; Prel, Eugen; Russell, Laura; Truong, Viet Giang; Nic Chormaic, Síle (August 2013). "Spectroscopy, Manipulation and Trapping of Neutral Atoms, Molecules, and Other Particles Using Optical Nanofibers: A Review". Sensors. 13 (8): 10449–10481. arXiv: 1306.5821 . Bibcode:2013Senso..1310449M. doi: 10.3390/s130810449 . PMC   3812613 . PMID   23945738.
  27. ↑ Xu, F.; Horak, P.; Brambilla, G. (2007). "Optical microfiber coil resonator refractometric sensor" (PDF). Optics Express. 15 (12): 7888–7893. Bibcode:2007OExpr..15.7888X. doi:10.1364/OE.15.007888. PMID   19547115. S2CID   42262445. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  28. ↑ Leon-Saval, S. G.; Birks, T. A.; Wadsworth, W. J.; St j Russell, P.; Mason, M. W. (2004). "Supercontinuum generation in submicron fibre waveguides". Optics Express. 12 (13): 2864–2869. Bibcode:2004OExpr..12.2864L. doi: 10.1364/OPEX.12.002864 . PMID   19483801. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  29. ↑ Koos, C.; Jacome, L.; Poulton, C.; Leuthold, J.; Freude, W. (2007). "Nonlinear silicon-on-insulator waveguides for all-optical signal processing" (PDF). Optics Express. 15 (10): 5976–5990. Bibcode:2007OExpr..15.5976K. doi:10.1364/OE.15.005976. hdl: 10453/383 . PMID   19546900. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  30. 1 2 3 Ward, J. M.; Maimaiti, A.; Le, Vu H.; Chormaic, S. Nic (2014-11-01). "Contributed Review: Optical micro- and nanofiber pulling rig". Review of Scientific Instruments. 85 (11): 111501. arXiv: 1402.6396 . Bibcode:2014RScI...85k1501W. doi:10.1063/1.4901098. ISSN   0034-6748. PMID   25430090. S2CID   7985175.
  31. ↑ Love, J.D.; Henry, W.M.; Stewart, W.J.; Black, R.J.; Lacroix, S.; Gonthier, F. (1991). "Tapered single-mode fibres and devices. Part 1: Adiabaticity criteria". IEE Proceedings J - Optoelectronics. 138 (5): 343. doi:10.1049/ip-j.1991.0060. ISSN   0267-3932.
  32. ↑ kenny, R.P.; Birks, T.A.; Oakley, K.P. (1991). "Control of optical fibre taper shape". Electronics Letters. 27 (18): 1654. Bibcode:1991ElL....27.1654K. doi:10.1049/el:19911034. ISSN   0013-5194.
  33. ↑ Nayak, K. P.; Melentiev, P. N.; Morinaga, M.; Le Kien, Fam; Balykin, V. I.; Hakuta, K. (2007). "Optical nanofiber as an efficient tool for manipulating and probing atomic fluorescence". Optics Express. 15 (9): 5431–5438. Bibcode:2007OExpr..15.5431N. doi: 10.1364/OE.15.005431 . PMID   19532797.
  34. ↑ Dawkins, S. T.; Mitsch, R.; Reitz, D.; Vetsch, E.; Rauschenbeutel, A. (2011). "Dispersive Optical Interface Based on Nanofiber-Trapped Atoms". Phys. Rev. Lett. 107 (24): 243601. arXiv: 1108.2469 . Bibcode:2011PhRvL.107x3601D. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.107.243601. PMID   22242999. S2CID   16246674.
  35. ↑ Goban, A.; Choi, K. S.; Alton, D. J.; Ding, D.; Lacroûte, C.; Pototschnig, M.; Thiele, T.; Stern, N. P.; Kimble, H. J. (2012). "Demonstration of a State-Insensitive, Compensated Nanofiber Trap". Phys. Rev. Lett. 109 (3): 033603. arXiv: 1203.5108 . Bibcode:2012PhRvL.109c3603G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.109.033603. PMID   22861848. S2CID   10085166.
  36. ↑ Nieddu, Thomas; Gokhroo, Vandna; Chormaic, Síle Nic (2016-03-14). "Optical nanofibres and neutral atoms". Journal of Optics. 18 (5): 053001. arXiv: 1512.02753 . Bibcode:2016JOpt...18e3001N. doi: 10.1088/2040-8978/18/5/053001 . ISSN   2040-8978.
  37. ↑ See, for example, a theoretical analysis with applications to precise quantum nondemolition measurement Qi, Xiaodong; Baragiola, Ben Q.; Jessen, Poul S.; Deutsch, Ivan H. (2016). "Dispersive response of atoms trapped near the surface of an optical nanofiber with applications to quantum nondemolition measurement and spin squeezing". Physical Review A. 93 (2): 023817. arXiv: 1509.02625 . Bibcode:2016PhRvA..93b3817Q. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.93.023817. S2CID   17366761.
  38. ↑ Solano, Pablo; Grover, Jeffrey A.; Hoffman, Jonathan E.; Ravets, Sylvain; Fatemi, Fredrik K.; Orozco, Luis A.; Rolston, Steven L. (2017-01-01), Arimondo, Ennio; Lin, Chun C.; Yelin, Susanne F. (eds.), "Chapter Seven - Optical Nanofibers: A New Platform for Quantum Optics", Advances in Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics, 66, Academic Press: 439–505, arXiv: 1703.10533 , doi:10.1016/bs.aamop.2017.02.003, S2CID   17928674 , retrieved 2020-10-15
  39. ↑ Le Kien, Fam; Rauschenbeutel, A. (2016). "Nanofiber-based all-optical switches". Phys. Rev. A. 93 (1): 013849. arXiv: 1604.05782 . Bibcode:2016PhRvA..93a3849L. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.93.013849. S2CID   119287411.
  40. ↑ Brambilla, G.; Murugan, G. Senthil; Wilkinson, J. S.; Richardson, D. J. (2007-10-15). "Optical manipulation of microspheres along a subwavelength optical wire". Optics Letters. 32 (20): 3041–3043. Bibcode:2007OptL...32.3041B. doi:10.1364/OL.32.003041. ISSN   1539-4794. PMID   17938693.
  41. ↑ Daly, Mark; Truong, Viet Giang; Chormaic, Síle Nic (2016-06-27). "Evanescent field trapping of nanoparticles using nanostructured ultrathin optical fibers". Optics Express. 24 (13): 14470–14482. arXiv: 1603.00170 . Bibcode:2016OExpr..2414470D. doi:10.1364/OE.24.014470. ISSN   1094-4087. PMID   27410600. S2CID   19705546.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.