Synthetic biopolymer

Last updated
IUPAC definitions
Synthetic biopolymers: human-made copies of biopolymers obtained by abiotic chemical routes. Artificial polymer: human-made polymer that is not a biopolymer

Synthetic biopolymers are human-made copies of biopolymers obtained by abiotic chemical routes. [1] Synthetic biopolymer of different chemical nature have been obtained, including polysaccharides, [2] glycoproteins, [3] peptides and proteins, [4] [5] polyhydroxoalkanoates, [6] polyisoprenes. [7]

Contents

Synthesis of biopolymer

The high molecular weight of biopolymers make their synthesis inherently laborious. Further challenges can arise from specific spatial arrangement adopted by the natural biopolymer, which may be vital for its properties/activity but not easily reproducible in the synthetic copy. Despite this, chemical approaches to obtain biopolymer are highly desirable to overcome issues arising from low abundance of the target biopolymer in Nature, the need for cumbersome isolation processes or high batch-to-batch variability or inhomogeneity of the naturally-sourced species. [8]

Examples of synthetic biopolymers obtained by chemical routes

Examples of biopolymers obtained by chemoenzymatic routes

Human-made biopolymers obtained through approaches that involve genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology are different from synthetic biopolymers and should be referred to as artificial biopolymer (e.g., artificial protein, artificial polynucleotide, etc.). [1]

Applications of synthetic biopolymers

As their natural analogues, synthetic biopolymers find applications in numerous fields, including materials for commodities, drug delivery, tissue engineering, therapeutic and diagnostic applications.[ citation needed ]

Related Research Articles

Biopolymer Polymer produced by a living organism

Biopolymers are natural polymers produced by the cells of living organisms. Biopolymers consist of monomeric units that are covalently bonded to form larger molecules. There are three main classes of biopolymers, classified according to the monomers used and the structure of the biopolymer formed: polynucleotides, polypeptides, and polysaccharides. Polynucleotides, such as RNA and DNA, are long polymers composed of 13 or more nucleotide monomers. Polypeptides and proteins, are polymers of amino acids and some major examples include collagen, actin, and fibrin. Polysaccharides are linear or branched polymeric carbohydrates and examples include starch, cellulose and alginate. Other examples of biopolymers include natural rubbers, suberin and lignin, cutin and cutan and melanin.

Beta-lactam

A beta-lactam (β-lactam) ring is a four-membered lactam. A lactam is a cyclic amide, and beta-lactams are named so because the nitrogen atom is attached to the β-carbon atom relative to the carbonyl. The simplest β-lactam possible is 2-azetidinone. β-lactams are significant structural units of medicines and have number of pharmacological activities.

Cellulose Polymer of glucose and structural component of cell wall of plants and green algae

Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula (C
6H
10O
5)
n, a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to many thousands of β(1→4) linked D-glucose units. Cellulose is an important structural component of the primary cell wall of green plants, many forms of algae and the oomycetes. Some species of bacteria secrete it to form biofilms. Cellulose is the most abundant organic polymer on Earth. The cellulose content of cotton fiber is 90%, that of wood is 40–50%, and that of dried hemp is approximately 57%.

Hemicellulose Class of plant cell wall polysaccharides

A hemicellulose is one of a number of heteropolymer, such as arabinoxylans, present along with cellulose in almost all terrestrial plant cell walls. While cellulose is crystalline, strong, and resistant to hydrolysis, hemicelluloses have random, amorphous structure with little strength. They are easily hydrolyzed by dilute acid or base as well as a myriad of hemicellulase enzymes.

A polyamide is a polymer with repeating units linked by amide bonds.

Polymer chemistry is a sub-discipline of chemistry that focuses on the chemical synthesis, structure, and chemical and physical properties of polymers and macromolecules. The principles and methods used within polymer chemistry are also applicable through a wide range of other chemistry sub-disciplines like organic chemistry, analytical chemistry, and physical chemistry. Many materials have polymeric structures, from fully inorganic metals and ceramics to DNA and other biological molecules, however, polymer chemistry is typically referred to in the context of synthetic, organic compositions. Synthetic polymers are ubiquitous in commercial materials and products in everyday use, commonly referred to as plastics, and rubbers, and are major components of composite materials. Polymer chemistry can also be included in the broader fields of polymer science or even nanotechnology, both of which can be described as encompassing polymer physics and polymer engineering.

Polythiophene

Polythiophenes (PTs) are polymerized thiophenes, a sulfur heterocycle. The parent PT is an insoluble colored solid with the formula (C4H2S)n. The rings are linked through the 2- and 5-positions. Poly(alkylthiophene)s have alkyl substituents at the 3- or 4-position(s). They are also colored solids, but tend to be soluble in organic solvents.

Polypyrrole

Polypyrrole (PPy) is an organic polymer obtained by oxidative polymerization of pyrrole. It is a solid with the formula H(C4H2NH)nH. It is an intrinsically conducting polymer, used in electronics, optical, biological and medical fields.

Biocatalysis

Biocatalysis refers to the use of living (biological) systems or their parts to speed up (catalyze) chemical reactions. In biocatalytic processes, natural catalysts, such as enzymes, perform chemical transformations on organic compounds. Both enzymes that have been more or less isolated and enzymes still residing inside living cells are employed for this task. Modern biotechnology, specifically directed evolution, has made the production of modified or non-natural enzymes possible. This has enabled the development of enzymes that can catalyze novel small molecule transformations that may be difficult or impossible using classical synthetic organic chemistry. Utilizing natural or modified enzymes to perform organic synthesis is termed chemoenzymatic synthesis; the reactions performed by the enzyme are classified as chemoenzymatic reactions.

A molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) is a polymer that has been processed using the molecular imprinting technique which leaves cavities in the polymer matrix with an affinity for a chosen "template" molecule. The process usually involves initiating the polymerization of monomers in the presence of a template molecule that is extracted afterwards, leaving behind complementary cavities. These polymers have affinity for the original molecule and have been used in applications such as chemical separations, catalysis, or molecular sensors. Published works on the topic date to the 1930s.

Biodegradable polymer

Biodegradable polymers are a special class of polymer that breaks down after its intended purpose by bacterial decomposition process to result in natural byproducts such as gases (CO2, N2), water, biomass, and inorganic salts. These polymers are found both naturally and synthetically made, and largely consist of ester, amide, and ether functional groups. Their properties and breakdown mechanism are determined by their exact structure. These polymers are often synthesized by condensation reactions, ring opening polymerization, and metal catalysts. There are vast examples and applications of biodegradable polymers.

In enzymology, a polynucleotide adenylyltransferase is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction

A nanogel is a nanoparticle composed of a hydrogel—a crosslinked hydrophilic polymer network. Nanogels are most often composed of synthetic polymers or biopolymers which are chemically or physically crosslinked. Nanogels are usually in the tens to hundreds of nanometers in diameter. Like hydrogels, nanogels have low density of macromolecules and their pores can be filled with small molecules or macromolecules, and their properties, such as swelling, degradation, and chemical functionality, can be controlled.

Poly(methacrylic acid)

Poly(methacrylic acid) (PMAA) is a polymer made from methacrylic acid, which is a carboxylic acid. It is often available as its sodium salt, poly(methacrylic acid) sodium salt. The monomer is a viscous liquid with a pungent odour. The first polymeric form of methacrylic acid was described in 1880 by Engelhorn and Fittig. The use of high purity monomers is required for proper polymerization conditions and therefore it is necessary to remove any inhibitors by extraction or via distillation. To prevent inhibition by dissolved oxygen, monomers should be carefully degassed prior to the start of the polymerization.

Polyaspartic acid

Polyaspartic acid (PASA) is a biodegradable, water-soluble polymerized amino acid. It is a biodegradable replacement for water softeners and related applications. PASA can be chemically crosslinked with a wide variety of methods to yield PASA hydrogels.

Sequence-controlled polymer

A sequence-controlled polymer is a macromolecule, in which the sequence of monomers is controlled to some degree. This control can be absolute but not necessarily. In other words, a sequence-controlled polymer can be uniform or non-uniform (Ð>1). For example, an alternating copolymer synthesized by radical polymerization is a sequence-controlled polymer, even if it is also a non-uniform polymer, in which chains have different chain-lengths and slightly different compositions. A biopolymer with a perfectly-defined primary structure is also a sequence-controlled polymer. However, in the case of uniform macromolecules, the term sequence-defined polymer can also be used.

Smart inorganic polymer

Smart inorganic polymers (SIPs) are hybrid or fully inorganic polymers with tunable (smart) properties such as stimuli responsive physical properties. While organic polymers are often petrol-based, the backbones of SIPs are made from elements other than carbon which can lessen the burden on scarce non-renewable resources and provide more sustainable alternatives. Common backbones utilized in SIPs include polysiloxanes, polyphosphates, and polyphosphazenes, to name a few.

Acetalated dextran

Acetalated dextran is a biodegradable polymer based on dextran that has acetal modified hydroxyl groups. After synthesis, the hydrophilic polysaccharide dextran is rendered insoluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents. This allows it to be processed in the same manner as many polyesters, like poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), through processes like solvent evaporation and emulsion. Acetalated dextran is structurally different from acetylated dextran.

Polymer-protein hybrid

Polymer-protein hybrids are a class of nanostructure composed of protein-polymer conjugates. The protein component generally gives the advantages of biocompatibility and biodegradability, as many proteins are produced naturally by the body and are therefore well tolerated and metabolized. Although proteins are used as targeted therapy drugs, the main limitations—the lack of stability and insufficient circulation times still remain. Therefore protein-polymer conjugates have been investigated to further enhance pharmacologic behavior and stability. By adjusting the chemical structure of the protein-polymer conjugates, polymer-protein particles with unique structures and functions, such as stimulus responsiveness, enrichment in specific tissue types, and enzyme activity, can be synthesized. Polymer-protein particles have been the focus of much research recently because they possess potential uses including bioseparations, imaging, biosensing, gene and drug delivery.

References

  1. 1 2 Vert, Michel; Doi, Yoshiharu; Hellwich, Karl-Heinz; Hess, Michael; Hodge, Philip; Kubisa, Przemyslaw; Rinaudo, Marguerite; Schué, François (11 January 2012). "Terminology for biorelated polymers and applications (IUPAC Recommendations 2012)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 84 (2): 377–410. doi:10.1351/PAC-REC-10-12-04. S2CID   98107080.
  2. 1 2 Kadokawa, Jun-ichi (2011-07-13). "Precision Polysaccharide Synthesis Catalyzed by Enzymes". Chemical Reviews. 111 (7): 4308–4345. doi:10.1021/cr100285v. ISSN   0009-2665. PMID   21319765.
  3. ↑ Hanson, Sarah; Best, Michael; Bryan, Marian C.; Wong, Chi-Huey (2004-12-01). "Chemoenzymatic synthesis of oligosaccharides and glycoproteins". Trends in Biochemical Sciences. 29 (12): 656–663. doi:10.1016/j.tibs.2004.10.004. ISSN   0968-0004. PMID   15544952.
  4. ↑ Nilsson, Bradley L.; Soellner, Matthew B.; Raines, Ronald T. (3 May 2005). "Chemical Synthesis of Proteins". Annual Review of Biophysics and Biomolecular Structure. 34 (1): 91–118. doi:10.1146/annurev.biophys.34.040204.144700. ISSN   1056-8700. PMC   2845543 . PMID   15869385.
  5. ↑ Kent, Stephen B. H. (26 January 2009). "Total chemical synthesis of proteins". Chemical Society Reviews. 38 (2): 338–351. doi:10.1039/B700141J. ISSN   1460-4744. PMID   19169452.
  6. 1 2 Gross, Richard A.; Ganesh, Manoj; Lu, Wenhua (2010-08-01). "Enzyme-catalysis breathes new life into polyester condensation polymerizations". Trends in Biotechnology. 28 (8): 435–443. doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2010.05.004. ISSN   0167-7799. PMID   20598389.
  7. ↑ Natta, G. (1 January 1967). "Crystalline Synthetic High Polymers with a Sterically Regular Structure". Stereoregular Polymers and Stereospecific Polymerizations. Pergamon: 701–707. doi:10.1016/B978-1-4831-9882-8.50055-5. ISBN   9781483198828.
  8. ↑ Kubicek, Christian P. (2016), "Synthetic Biopolymers", in Glieder, Anton; Kubicek, Christian P.; Mattanovich, Diethard; Wiltschi, Birgit (eds.), Synthetic Biology, Springer International Publishing, pp. 307–335, doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-22708-5_9 , ISBN   9783319227085
  9. ↑ Rudin, Alfred; Choi, Phillip (2013-01-01), Rudin, Alfred; Choi, Phillip (eds.), "Chapter 11 - Ionic and Coordinated Polymerizations", The Elements of Polymer Science & Engineering (Third Edition), Academic Press, pp. 449–493, doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-382178-2.00011-0, ISBN   9780123821782
  10. ↑ Song, Jing-She; Huang, Bao-Chen; Yu, Ding-Sheng (2001). "Progress of synthesis and application of trans-1,4-polyisoprene". Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 82 (1): 81–89. doi:10.1002/app.1826. ISSN   1097-4628.
  11. ↑ Poly(lactic acid) : synthesis, structures, properties, processing and applications. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. 2013. ISBN   9781118088135. OCLC   898985627.
  12. ↑ Reese, Colin B. (2005-10-20). "Oligo- and poly-nucleotides: 50 years of chemical synthesis". Organic & Biomolecular Chemistry. 3 (21): 3851–3868. doi:10.1039/B510458K. ISSN   1477-0539. PMID   16312051.
  13. ↑ Sohma, Youhei; Pentelute, Brad L.; Whittaker, Jonathan; Hua, Qin-xin; Whittaker, Linda J.; Weiss, Michael A.; Kent, Stephen B. H. (2008). "Comparative Properties of Insulin-like Growth Factor 1 (IGF-1) and [Gly7D-Ala]IGF-1 Prepared by Total Chemical Synthesis". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 47 (6): 1102–1106. doi:10.1002/anie.200703521. ISSN   1521-3773. PMID   18161716.
  14. ↑ Sakakibara, Shumpei; Tsuji, Frederick I.; Kimura, Terutoshi; Bódi, József; Nishio, Hideki; Inui, Tatsuya; Nishiuchi, Yuji (1998-11-10). "Chemical synthesis of the precursor molecule of the Aequorea green fluorescent protein, subsequent folding, and development of fluorescence". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 95 (23): 13549–13554. Bibcode:1998PNAS...9513549N. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.23.13549. ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   24856 . PMID   9811837.
  15. ↑ Kochendoerfer, Gerd G.; Salom, David; Lear, James D.; Wilk-Orescan, Rosemarie; Kent, Stephen B. H.; DeGrado, William F. (1999-09-01). "Total Chemical Synthesis of the Integral Membrane Protein Influenza A Virus M2: Role of Its C-Terminal Domain in Tetramer Assembly". Biochemistry. 38 (37): 11905–11913. doi:10.1021/bi990720m. ISSN   0006-2960. PMID   10508393.
  16. ↑ Linhardt, Robert J; Liu, Jian (April 2012). "Synthetic heparin". Current Opinion in Pharmacology. 12 (2): 217–219. doi:10.1016/j.coph.2011.12.002. PMC   3496756 . PMID   22325855.
  17. ↑ Peterson, Sherket; Frick, Amber; Liu, Jian (2009). "Design of biologically active heparan sulfate and heparin using an enzyme-based approach". Natural Product Reports. 26 (5): 610–27. doi:10.1039/B803795G. PMID   19387498.
  18. ↑ Mende, Marco; Bednarek, Christin; Wawryszyn, Mirella; Sauter, Paul; Biskup, Moritz B.; Schepers, Ute; Bräse, Stefan (13 July 2016). "Chemical Synthesis of Glycosaminoglycans". Chemical Reviews. 116 (14): 8193–8255. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00010. PMID   27410264.
  19. ↑ Pfrengle, Fabian (October 2017). "Synthetic plant glycans". Current Opinion in Chemical Biology. 40: 145–151. doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2017.09.010. PMID   29024888.
  20. ↑ Kong, Dehui; Yeung, Wayland; Hili, Ryan (2016-07-11). "Generation of Synthetic Copolymer Libraries by Combinatorial Assembly on Nucleic Acid Templates". ACS Combinatorial Science. 18 (7): 355–370. doi:10.1021/acscombsci.6b00059. ISSN   2156-8952. PMID   27275512.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.