Treaty of Orihuela (also known as the Treaty of Tudmir/Theodemir) was an early Dhimmi treaty imposed by the invading Umayyad Caliphate on the Christians in the city of Orihuela in the Iberian Peninsula in 713.
Treaty of Orihuela (also known as the Treaty of Tudmir/Theodemir) was an early Dhimmi treaty imposed by the invading Umayyad Caliphate on the Christians in the city of Orihuela in the Iberian Peninsula in 713.
The Treaty of Tudmir was a pact made between ‘Abd al-‘Aziz (son of Musa bin Nusair, governor of North Africa) and the Christian Visigoth Theodemir, Tudmir in Arabic (prince and governor of the region of Murcia in the Iberian Peninsula) in the early eighth century. [1] This accord was created in 713 C. E., two years after the Islamic conquest of Spain began; it bears special significance with regard to the Muslims’ diplomatic behavior and their treatment of enemies and conquered peoples. It suggests the Muslims succeeded in a peaceful take-over of southern Spain, specifically Orihuela, Villena, Alicante, Mula, Bigastro, Ello, and Lorca. The agreement stated that the Murcians could keep control and continue to practice their Christian faith but only if they paid the taxes and did not aid Muslim enemies. [2] Although the Treaty of Tudmir itself may not seem to have been particularly noteworthy in its own context, and despite the fact that literature which is germane specifically to the Treaty is somewhat rare, it should be considered important in retrospect due to its cultural, religious, and sociological implications. To better understand these implications, it is important to review an initial course of the Islamic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula.
Islamic control spread greatly under the Umayyad caliphate. It had reached all the way to Western Africa in Maghrib where the Berbers lived. These peoples fought hard and mostly retreated to the mountains while some clans from the main routes and plains of the coast submitted as dhimmis too or converted to Islam and at any case were promptly joined by the Arabs to their military machine. With their superior military arms and skills the caliphs were able to extend their control into Spain. [3]
The first notable Islamic conqueror to enter Spain was the Berber commander Tariq ibn Ziyad. Musá ibn Nusayr was the governor of Northern Africa under the caliph of that period, and it was he who ordered Tariq to make the initial surge into Spain via Gibraltar in spring of the year 711. [4] Once in Gibraltar, Tariq took time to secure a base of operations for his forces and fortified it with a wall, among other defenses. As soon as this was accomplished, Tariq sent an invasion force to the city of Carteya (or Cartaja) and the district of Algeciras, and both were promptly subdued. In little more than two months, Tariq had worked his way steadily through the south of Spain; he began his plunge into central Spain in a battle with the Visigothic King Roderic at Wadi Bakkah. Here, Tariq defeated the army of Roderick against reportedly overwhelming odds. [5] Tariq moved thence to the cities of Écija and Córdoba, effectively ignoring commands he had previously received from Musá to return to Africa or to remain stationary until the governor's arrival in Spain. [6] After attacking and overpowering these cities, Tariq moved on with relative ease as far as Guadalajara, Spain. He quickly took control of Toledo and its surrounding territories before lack of reinforcements from Musá necessitated his withdrawal, whereupon he retreated to Toledo and remained there until Musá himself came to meet him with scorn and jealousy, demanding the spoils of the conquest. [7]
Shortly after Musá arrived in Toledo, the Caliph al-Walid ordered him and Tariq to appear in the royal court in Damascus to speak of their campaign in Spain. Upon Musá's departure for Damascus, he abdicated his authority over the conquered regions to his son ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, who carried on his father’s and Tariq’s work. It was ‘Abd al-‘Aziz who eventually reached the region of Murcia in his conquests, where he encountered and signed a treaty with the above mentioned Visigothic lord of the region, Theodemir. It was this treaty that became known as the Treaty of Tudmir, and the land of Murcia thereafter was known also as Tudmir. [8]
Muslim general in North Africa who led the conquest of Spain. [9] He was known for his great leadership and warrior skills. His origins are slightly unknown but he may have been a freedman linked to the Yemenite tribe and is suggested that his father was a commander of the caliph’s bodyguard. He supported the Caisites against Merwan. After being accused of mistrust, he fled to Egypt and found refuge from its governor ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn Marwan, and he changed his support in favor of the reigning caliphs. He became governor of Northern Africa in 698 and quickly extended his control all the way to Maghrib in West Africa, where he took control of the Berbers and integrated them into the Muslim army. September 714 brought an end to the Spanish conquests and the end of Musá’s career. He headed to Damascus with much of the spoils and captives but the caliph al-Walid viewed him with suspicion. Musá died penniless sometime around 716. [10]
A Berber commander in the Muslim army under Musá ibn Nusayr, he led the conquest into Spain in 711 with about 7,000 soldiers. Where he landed has since been named after him: Gibraltar, or “Jabal Tariq”, which in Arabic means “Mount of Tariq”. [11] He swept through much of southern Spain and conquered the capital of Toledo. It is also said he acquired the bejeweled “table of Solomon” in Alcala de Henares.
Son of Musá. He was sent on two operations in Spain: one to the west towards Huelva and the other to the east where he initiated the Treaty of Tudmir in Murcia. [12]
Umayyad Caliph at the time of the initial conquests in the Iberian Peninsula who was influential in the events that led to the development of the Treaty of Tudmir. Al-Walid was the son of 'Abd al-Malik, and his reign was a highly prosperous one. Marked by extravagant building projects and restorations in the new capital of Damascus, the administration of al-Walid was very wealthy, though this affluence was owed in great part to the prudent management of his father from whom he inherited the Caliphate. [13] It was under the rule of al-Walid that the realms of Carthage and the Maghrib in Northern Africa were finally subdued. Musá ibn Nusayr was made governor of the provinces of that region under the order of al-Walid, and from this point, the focus of expansion was set on the Iberian Peninsula. [14] After the conquest of Spain, the spoils of the campaign were handed over to al-Walid, and all three figures gradually faded from notoriety, but it was under the mandate of al-Walid that 'Abd al-'Aziz made the Treaty of Tudmir with Theodemir.
Christian Visigoth prince of Murcia. The Treaty of Tudmir was made between Theodemir and ‘Abd al-‘Aziz. [15]
“In the name of God, the merciful and compassionate. This is a document [granted] by ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn Musá ibn Nusair to Tudmir, son of Ghabdush, establishing a treaty of peace and the promise and protection of God and his Prophet) may God bless him and grant him peace). We [‘Abd al-‘Aziz] will not set special conditions for him or for any among his men, nor harass him, nor remove him from power. His followers will not be killed or taken prisoner, nor will they be separated from their women and children. They will not be coerced in matters of religion, their churches will not be burned, nor will sacred objects be taken from the realm, [so long as] he [Tudmir] remains sincere and fulfills the [following] conditions that we have set for him. He has reached a settlement concerning seven towns: Orihuela, Villena, Alicante, Mula, Bigastro, Ello, and Lorca. He will not give shelter to fugitives, nor to our enemies, nor encourage any protected person to fear us, nor conceal news of our enemies. He and [each of] his men shall [also] pay one dinar every year, together with four measures of wheat, four measures of barley, four liquid measures of concentrated fruit juice, four liquid measures of vinegar, four of honey, and four of olive oil. Slaves must each pay half of this amount. {Names of four witnesses follow, and the document is dated from the Muslim month of Rajab, in the year 94 of the Hijra (April 713).}” [16]
The 8th century is the period from 701 (DCCI) through 800 (DCCC) in accordance with the Julian Calendar.
Year 714 (DCCXIV) was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 714 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.
The 710s decade ran from January 1, 710, to December 31, 719.
Year 713 (DCCXIII) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 713 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.
The Battle of Guadalete was the first major battle of the Umayyad conquest of Hispania, fought in 711 at an unidentified location in what is now southern Spain between the Christian Visigoths under their king, Roderic, and the invading forces of the Muslim Umayyad Caliphate, composed mainly of Berbers and some Arabs under the commander Ṭāriq ibn Ziyad. The battle was significant as the culmination of a series of Berber attacks and the beginning of the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. Roderic was killed in the battle, along with many members of the Visigothic nobility, opening the way for the capture of the Visigothic capital of Toledo.
Ṭāriq ibn Ziyād, also known simply as Tarik in English, was a Berber commander who served the Umayyad Caliphate and initiated the Muslim Umayyad conquest of Visigothic Hispania in 711–718 AD. He led an army and crossed the Strait of Gibraltar from the North African coast, consolidating his troops at what is today known as the Rock of Gibraltar. The name "Gibraltar" is the Spanish derivation of the Arabic name Jabal Ṭāriq, meaning "mountain of Ṭāriq", which is named after him.
Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, commonly known as al-Walid I, was the sixth Umayyad caliph, ruling from October 705 until his death. He was the eldest son of his predecessor, Caliph Abd al-Malik. As a prince, he led annual raids against the Byzantines from 695 to 698 and built or restored fortifications along the Syrian Desert route to Mecca. He became heir apparent in c. 705, after the death of the designated successor, Abd al-Malik's brother Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan.
Musa ibn Nusayr served as an Umayyad governor and an Arab general under the Umayyad caliph Al-Walid I. He ruled over the Muslim provinces of North Africa (Ifriqiya), and directed the Islamic conquest of the Visigothic Kingdom in Hispania.
Theodemir or Theudimer was a Visigothic comes (count) prominent in the southeast of Carthaginensis during the last decades of the Visigothic kingdom and for several years after the Moorish conquest. He ruled seven cities in southeastern Spain, mentioned in the Treaty of Orihuela that was preserved by the Andalusian historian Ibn Adarí in the thirteenth century: Orihuela, Valentila, Alicante, Mula, Bigastro, Eyya, and Lorca.
This is a timeline of notable events during the period of Muslim presence in Iberia, starting with the Umayyad conquest in the 8th century.
The Muslim conquest of Spain was an invasion of the Iberian Peninsula by the Umayyad Caliphate, occurring from approximately 710 to 780. The conquest resulted in the defeat of the Visigothic Kingdom and the establishment of the Umayyad Wilayah of Al-Andalus.
This is a historical timeline of Portugal.
Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa ibn Nusayr was the first governor of Al-Andalus, in modern-day Spain and Portugal. He was the son of Musa ibn Nusayr, the governor of Ifriqiya. ‘Abd al-Aziz had a long history of political and military involvement along with his father.
The Muslim conquest of the Maghreb continued the century of rapid Muslim conquests following the death of Muhammad in 632 and into the Byzantine-controlled territories of Northern Africa. In a series of three stages, the conquest of the Maghreb commenced in 647 and concluded in 709 with the Byzantine Empire losing its last remaining strongholds to the then-Umayyad Caliphate under Caliph Al Walid Ibn Abdul Malik.
The Berbers are an indigenous ethnic group of the Maghreb region of North Africa. Following the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb, most Berber tribes eventually became Muslims. Presently, about one-sixth of the population of Maghreb speaks one of the Berber languages, but most of them also speak some form of Arabic. Berbers are the first non-Arab people to have established an Islamic state.
Hassan ibn al-Nu'man al-Ghassani was an Arab general of the Umayyad Caliphate who led the final Muslim conquest of Ifriqiya, firmly establishing Islamic rule in the region. Appointed by Caliph Abd al-Malik, Hassan launched a series of campaigns during the closing years of the 7th century, during which he defeated the Byzantines and the Berbers led by al-Kahina. The Byzantine capital of Carthage was destroyed in 698 and the nearby city of Tunis was founded in the following year. In Kairouan, Hassan set up a Muslim administration for the province to collect taxes from its Christian inhabitants and pay the troops. He enrolled thousands of Berbers into the army, which proved critical to later Muslim military successes in the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula. He was ultimately ousted from his post by the governor of Egypt, Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan, due to a power struggle for influence over Ifriqiya.
Al-Ḥurr ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Thaqafi was an early Umayyad governor who ruled the Muslim province of Al-Andalus from between 716 and 718. He was the third successor to Musa bin Nusair, the North African governor who had directed the conquest of Visigothic Hispania several years earlier in 711. Al-Hurr was the first Muslim commander to cross the Pyrenees in 717, leading a small raiding party into Septimania. His incursions were largely unsuccessful, for which he was deposed in 718.
Yazid ibn Abi Muslim was the Umayyad governor of Ifriqiya from 720 until his assassination in 721.
Abu Marwan Bishr ibn Marwan ibn al-Hakam was an Umayyad prince and governor of Iraq during the reign of his brother, Caliph Abd al-Malik. Bishr fought at Marj Rahit with his father, Caliph Marwan I. Marwan posted Bishr to Egypt to keep his brother Abd al-Aziz company. In 690/91, Bishr was made governor of Kufa and about one year later, Basra was added to his governorship, giving him full control of Iraq.