Trioecy

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Trioecy, tridioecy or subdioecy, is a sexual system characterized by the coexistence of males, females, and hermaphrodites. It has been found in both plants and animals. [1] [2] Trioecy, androdioecy and gynodioecy may be described as mixed mating systems. [3]

Contents

Evolution of trioecy

Trioecy may be an unstable transient state [4] associated with evolutionary transitioning from gynodioecy to dioecy. [5] [4] In brachiopod species, trioecy usually breaks into androdioecy or gynodioecy. [6] Other studies show that trioecious populations originated from gonochoristic ancestors which were invaded by a mutant selfing hermaphrodite, creating a trioecious population. [1] It has been suggested that chromosomal duplication plays an important part in the evolution of trioecy. [7]

But one study found that trioecy can be stable under nucleocytoplasmic sex determination. [8] Another theoretical analysis indicates that trioecy could be evolutionary stable in plant species if a large amount of pollinators vary geographically. [9]

Occurrence

Trioecy is a relatively common sexual system in plants, [10] estimated to occur in about 3.6% of flowering plant species, [8] although most reports of trioecy could be misinterpretations of gynodioecy. [11] It is rare as well as poorly understood in animals. [10]

Species that exhibit trioecy

The following species have been observed to exhibit a trioecious breeding system.

Plants

Animals

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex</span> Trait that determines an individuals sexually reproductive function

Sex is the trait that determines whether a sexually reproducing organism produces male or female gametes. A male organism produces small mobile gametes, while a female organism produces larger, non-mobile gametes. An organism that produces both types of gamete is called a hermaphrodite. During sexual reproduction, a male and a female gamete fuse to form a zygote, which develops into an offspring that inherits traits from each parent.

<i>Silene</i> Genus of flowering plants

Silene is a genus of flowering plants in the family Caryophyllaceae. Containing nearly 900 species, it is the largest genus in the family. Common names include campion and catchfly. Many Silene species are widely distributed, particularly in the northern hemisphere.

<i>Coccoloba</i> Genus of flowering plants in the family Polygonaceae

Coccoloba is a genus of about 120–150 species of flowering plants in the family Polygonaceae, which is native to the Neotropics. There is no overall English name for the genus, although many of the individual species have widely used common names.

In biology, gonochorism is a sexual system where there are only two sexes and each individual organism is either male or female. The term gonochorism is usually applied in animal species, the vast majority of which are gonochoric.

Dioecy is a characteristic of certain species that have distinct unisexual individuals, each producing either male or female gametes, either directly or indirectly. Dioecious reproduction is biparental reproduction. Dioecy has costs, since only the female part of the population directly produces offspring. It is one method for excluding self-fertilization and promoting allogamy (outcrossing), and thus tends to reduce the expression of recessive deleterious mutations present in a population. Plants have several other methods of preventing self-fertilization including, for example, dichogamy, herkogamy, and self-incompatibility.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Male</span> Sex of an organism which produces sperm

Male is the sex of an organism that produces the gamete known as sperm, which fuses with the larger female gamete, or ovum, in the process of fertilization. A male organism cannot reproduce sexually without access to at least one ovum from a female, but some organisms can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Most male mammals, including male humans, have a Y chromosome, which codes for the production of larger amounts of testosterone to develop male reproductive organs.

Androdioecy is a reproductive system characterized by the coexistence of males and hermaphrodites. Androdioecy is rare in comparison with the other major reproductive systems: dioecy, gynodioecy and hermaphroditism. In animals, androdioecy has been considered a stepping stone in the transition from dioecy to hermaphroditism, and vice versa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hermaphrodite</span> Sexually reproducing organism that produces both male and female gametes

A hermaphrodite is a sexually reproducing organism that produces both male and female gametes. Animal species in which individuals are of different sexes, either male or female but not both, are gonochoric, which is the opposite of hermaphroditic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Female</span> Sex of an organism that produces ova

An organism's sex is female if it produces the ovum, the type of gamete that fuses with the male gamete during sexual reproduction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gynodioecy</span> Coexistence of female and hermaphrodite within a population

Gynodioecy is a rare breeding system that is found in certain flowering plant species in which female and hermaphroditic plants coexist within a population. Gynodioecy is the evolutionary intermediate between hermaphroditism and dioecy.

Sex determination in <i>Silene</i> Sex determination in the flower genus Silene

Silene is a flowering plant genus that has evolved a dioecious reproductive system. This is made possible through heteromorphic sex chromosomes expressed as XY. Silene recently evolved sex chromosomes 5-10 million years ago and are widely used by geneticists and biologists to study the mechanisms of sex determination since they are one of only 39 species across 14 families of angiosperm that possess sex-determining genes. Silene are studied because of their ability to produce offspring with a plethora of reproductive systems. The common inference drawn from such studies is that the sex of the offspring is determined by the Y chromosome.

Social selection is a term used with varying meanings in biology.

Coccoloba cereifera is a rare species of flowering plant in the knotweed or buckwheat family Polygonaceae. The species is restricted to a single mountain, the Serra do Cipó, in southern Brazil. The species is notable for its expression of a trioecious sexual system.

Andromonoecy is a breeding system of plant species in which male and hermaphrodite flowers are on the same plant. It is a monomorphic sexual system comparable with monoecy, gynomonoecy and trimonoecy. Andromonoecy is frequent among genera with zygomorphic flowers, however it is overall rare and occurs in less than 2% of plant species. Nonetheless the breeding system has gained interest among biologists in the study of sex expression.

Gynomonoecy is defined as the presence of both female and hermaphrodite flowers on the same individual of a plant species. It is prevalent in Asteraceae but is poorly understood.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Monoecy</span> Sexual system in seed plants

Monoecy is a sexual system in seed plants where separate male and female cones or flowers are present on the same plant. It is a monomorphic sexual system comparable with gynomonoecy, andromonoecy and trimonoecy, and contrasted with dioecy where individual plants produce cones or flowers of only one sex.

A sexual system is a pattern of sex allocation or a distribution of male and female function across organisms in a species. Terms like reproductive system and mating system have also been used as synonyms.

Dioicy is a sexual system where archegonia and antheridia are produced on separate gametophytes. It is one of the two main sexual systems in bryophytes, the other being monoicy. Both dioicous and monoicous gametophytes produce gametes in gametangia by mitosis rather than meiosis, so that sperm and eggs are genetically identical with their parent gametophyte.

<i>Salvatoria clavata</i> Species of annelid

Salvatoria clavata is a species of Annelida in the family Syllidae.The species is similar to Brania pusilla but is a bit longer measuring in about 2mm to 3mm, individuals in this species can even grow to 10 mm. They have parental care. It has an acrosome shaped like a beaker.

<i>Pleodorina starrii</i> Species of algae

Pleodorina starrii is a species of algae that resides in freshwater in Japan.

References

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  2. ↑ Choe, Jae (2019-01-21). "Hermaphrodite Mating Systems". In Leonard, Janet (ed.). Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior. Vol. 4. Academic Press. pp. 584–589. ISBN   978-0-12-813252-4.
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  6. ↑ Subramoniam, Thanumalaya (2016-09-27). Sexual Biology and Reproduction in Crustaceans. Academic Press. p. 15. ISBN   978-0-12-809606-2.
  7. ↑ Fleming, Theodore H.; Valiente-Banuet, Alfonso (2002). Columnar Cacti and Their Mutualists: Evolution, Ecology, and Conservation. University of Arizona Press. p. 215. ISBN   978-0-8165-2204-0.
  8. 1 2 Albert, Béatrice; Morand-Prieur, Marie-Élise; Brachet, Stéphanie; Gouyon, Pierre-Henri; Frascaria-Lacoste, Nathalie; Raquin, Christian (2013-10-01). "Sex expression and reproductive biology in a tree species, Fraxinus excelsior L". Comptes Rendus Biologies. 336 (10): 479–485. doi:10.1016/j.crvi.2013.08.004. ISSN   1631-0691. PMID   24246889.
  9. ↑ Fleming, Theodore H.; Valiente-Banuet, Alfonso (2002). Columnar Cacti and Their Mutualists: Evolution, Ecology, and Conservation. University of Arizona Press. p. 214. ISBN   978-0-8165-2204-0.
  10. 1 2 3 Oyarzún P, Nuñez J, Toro JE, Gardner J (2020). "Trioecy in the Marine Mussel Semimytilus algosus (Mollusca, Bivalvia): Stable Sex Ratios Across 22 Degrees of a Latitudinal Gradient". Frontiers in Marine Science. 7 (348): 1–10. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2020.00348 .
  11. ↑ Geber, Monica A.; Dawson, Todd E.; Delph, Lynda F. (2012-12-06). Gender and Sexual Dimorphism in Flowering Plants. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 74. ISBN   978-3-662-03908-3.
  12. ↑ Silva, C. A.; Oliva, M.; Vieira, M. F.; Fernandes, G. W. (October 27, 2008). "Trioecy in Coccoloba cereifera Schwacke (Polygonaceae), a narrow endemic and threatened tropical species". Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology. 51 (5): 1003–1010. doi: 10.1590/S1516-89132008000500017 . S2CID   85673074.
  13. ↑ Joseph KS, Murthy HN (2015). "Sexual system of Garcinia indica Choisy: geographic variation in trioecy and sexual dimorphism in floral traits". Plant Systematics and Evolution. 301 (3): 1065–1071. doi:10.1007/s00606-014-1120-y. S2CID   15926083.
  14. ↑ Husaini, Amjad M.; Neri, Davide (2016). Strawberry: growth, development and diseases. Boston, MA: CAB International.
  15. ↑ Godley, E. J. (1955). "Breeding Systems in New Zealand Plants: I. Fuchsia." Annals of botany, 19(4), 549-559.
  16. ↑ Perry, Laura E.; Pannell, John R.; Dorken, Marcel E. (2012-04-19). "Two's Company, Three's a Crowd: Experimental Evaluation of the Evolutionary Maintenance of Trioecy in Mercurialis annua (Euphorbiaceae)". PLOS ONE. 7 (4): e35597. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...735597P. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0035597 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   3330815 . PMID   22532862.
  17. 1 2 Avise, John C. (2011-03-18). Hermaphroditism: A Primer on the Biology, Ecology, and Evolution of Dual Sexuality. Columbia University Press. p. 55. ISBN   978-0-231-52715-6.
  18. ↑ Fleming, Theodore H. (September 2000). "Pollination of Cacti in the Sonoran Desert: When closely related species vie for scarce resources, necessity is the mother of some pretty unusual evolutionary inventions". American Scientist. 88 (5): 432–439. doi:10.1511/2000.5.432. JSTOR   27858091. S2CID   122244912.
  19. ↑ Roy, Scott (1 November 2021). "Digest: Three sexes from two loci in one genome: A haploid alga expands the diversity of trioecious species". academic.oup.com. Retrieved 2023-05-12.
  20. ↑ Armoza-Zvuloni, Rachel; Kramarsky-Winter, Esti; Loya, Yossi; Schlesinger, Ami; Rosenfeld, Hanna (2014-06-01). "Trioecy, a Unique Breeding Strategy in the Sea Anemone Aiptasia diaphana and Its Association with Sex Steroids". Biology of Reproduction. 90 (6): 122. doi: 10.1095/biolreprod.113.114116 . ISSN   0006-3363. PMID   24790160.
  21. ↑ Leonard, Janet L. (2013-10-01). "Williams' Paradox and the Role of Phenotypic Plasticity in Sexual Systems". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 53 (4): 671–688. doi: 10.1093/icb/ict088 . ISSN   1540-7063. PMID   23970358.
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