Trudy Virginia Noller Murphy

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Trudy Virginia Noller Murphy is an American pediatric infectious diseases physician, public health epidemiologist and vaccinologist. During the 1980s and 1990s, she conducted research at Southwestern Medical School in Dallas, Texas on three bacterial pathogens: Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib), [1] Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus), [2] and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). [3] Murphy's studies advanced understanding of how these organisms spread within communities, particularly among children attending day care centers. [4] [5] [3] [6] Her seminal work on Hib vaccines elucidated the effects of introduction of new Hib vaccines on both bacterial carriage [6] [7] and control of invasive Hib disease. [8] [9] [10] Murphy subsequently joined the National Immunization Program at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) where she led multi-disciplinary teams in the Divisions of Epidemiology and Surveillance and The Viral Hepatitis Division. Among her most influential work at CDC was on Rotashield™, [11] [12] which was a newly licensed vaccine designed to prevent severe diarrheal disease caused by rotavirus. Murphy and her colleagues uncovered that the vaccine increased the risk of acute bowel obstruction (intussusception). [13] [11] [14] This finding prompted suspension of the national recommendation to vaccinate children with Rotashield, [13] [15] and led the manufacturer to withdraw the vaccine from the market [13] . [16] For this work Murphy received the United States Department of Health and Human Services Secretary's Award for Distinguished Service in 2000, [17] and the publication describing this work [11] was recognized in 2002 by the Charles C. Shepard Science Award from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. [17]

Contents

Early life and education

Murphy was born in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, where her father, George Noller, [18] was employed by the Manhattan Project. She grew up in Berkeley, California, attended Berkeley High School, and graduated from the University of California Berkeley with a BA in Biological Sciences. [17] She earned her medical degree from the University of California Los Angeles and completed her post-graduate pediatric infectious disease work at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical School in Dallas, Texas, under the mentorship of George H. McCracken Jr. and John D. Nelson. Following her fellowship she became a member of the faculty at Southwestern Medical School. [17]

Research

Murphy is the author or co-author of around 100 publications in peer-reviewed academic journals [19] as well as numerous contributions in “Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report”, [19] published by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).  As a faculty member at Southwestern Medical School she established prospective, laboratory-based surveillance of severe bacterial diseases in residents of Dallas County, Texas.[1] In 1998, she joined CDC where her work focused on infectious disease epidemiology and vaccine policy. 

Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib)

By the 1960s, Hib was recognized as an important cause of invasive bacterial disease in infants and children. [20] By the late 1970s, with increasing use of childcare outside the home, cases of Hib disease were being recognized with increasing frequency among infants and children attending child day care facilities. [21] [22] Whether or not to give antimicrobial prophylaxis to day contacts of a case of Hib disease to prevent secondary cases was controversial. [23] [24]   The reasons were that little was known about the extent of asymptomatic Hib colonization among children attending child day care in the absence of cases of disease, or the risk of a secondary case of disease in contacts after exposure to a Hib case. Murphy and her colleagues obtained monthly pharyngeal cultures for Hib from children and their caretakers in a day care center in which no cases of Hib systemic disease had occurred. [4] [25] Despite absence of exposure to a case, 71% of the toddler group and 48% of the preschool group became colonized by Hib at some time during the 18-month-study. These data showed that Hib could be widespread in a day care center without resulting in systemic disease.

Murphy and her colleagues also prospectively investigated cases of Hib disease among children attending day care in Dallas County, Texas, to determine the rate of subsequent disease among contacts exposed to a case. [10] During 60 days of follow-up after exposure, there was only a single case among 587 untreated classroom contacts, and no cases among 361 untreated contacts under two years of age, the age group considered to be at highest risk of disease.  This low risk indicated that antimicrobial prophylaxis may not be appropriate after the occurrence of a single case of Hib disease in a day-care facility, and that to avoid extensive potentially unnecessary exposure to antimicrobial agents, prophylaxis should be reserved for day care contacts exposed to two or more cases. [23]

In the mid-1980s, a plain (unconjugated) Hib polysaccharide vaccine (called PRP) was licensed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and recommended for children ages 18 to 72 months. There was controversy about the efficacy of this vaccine [26] and, subsequently, it was replaced by second-generation Hib vaccines in which the polysaccharide was conjugated to protein carriers [27] .  The first Hib conjugate vaccine used diphtheria toxoid as the carrier protein, was called PRP-D [28] and was also recommended for the age group 18 to 72 months. [29] Murphy and her colleagues were one of the first to document the decline of Hib disease after introduction of PRP-D vaccine in the U.S. [9] Unexpectedly, they observed a decrease in disease in both the age group being vaccinated and in children less than 18 months of age who at the time were not being vaccinated against Hib. In previous studies, plain polysaccharide vaccines against other encapsulated pathogens (pneumococci and meningococci) protected against invasive disease but did decrease disease in the unvaccinated population or prevent asymptomatic infection of the nasopharynx. [30] [31] Murphy's observations of a decrease in Hib disease among unvaccinated children <18 months of age after introduction of PRP-D in older children, suggested that vaccination might confer indirect protection on developing disease in unvaccinated children by decreasing transmission of the organism in the population (so-called "herd immunity", now called “community protection”).  

To investigate the effect of Hib vaccination on asymptomatic Hib colonization, Murphy obtained pharyngeal cultures in children attending a day care center and analyzed acquisition of carriage in relation to previous Hib vaccination. [6] Among children exposed to a child with a positive Hib culture, those who had been previously vaccinated with a Hib conjugate vaccine were much less likely to become Hib carriers than those who were unvaccinated, or who had been vaccinated with unconjugated PRP vaccine. Overall, Hib conjugate vaccination in this study was 81% effective in preventing Hib colonization, whereas unconjugated PRP vaccination conferred no significant protection against colonization.  These results were unexpected [32] and provided an explanation for the decline in the incidence of Hib disease in unvaccinated children in the general population, namely by decreasing transmission of Hib from vaccinated children to unvaccinated children [32] .  This study and others by Murphy et al. documented how protein-conjugate Hib vaccines resulted in dramatic declines in serious Hib infections in the population. [27] [33] [34]

Neisseria meningitidis,Streptococcus pneumoniae and methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)

Murphy subsequently expanded the county-wide surveillance system in Dallas County to include other severe infections by encapsulated bacteria and cases hospitalized with Staphylococcal infection. The results underscored the importance of development of new vaccines for prevention of N. meningitidis (meningococcal) [35] and S. pneumoniae (pneumococcal) infections. [2] [36] She also identified rare strains of S. pneumoniae that caused a form of kidney failure called hemolytic uremic syndrome. [37] Her studies of MRSA in the community and in day care centers [3] were the first to document community spread of MRSA among children in two day care centers.

Research informing national vaccine recommendations

Rotavirus was a leading cause of severe gastroenteritis among infants and young children. [38] In August 1998, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the first rotavirus vaccine for use in infants. The vaccine, called Rotashield™ (Wyeth Lederle Vaccines and Pediatrics] was a live attenuated virus. [39] Within months after introduction, cases of an uncommon form of bowel obstruction (intussusception) were reported in infants who had been given the vaccine, which prompted the CDC to initiate a multi-state public health emergency investigation. Led by Murphy, the investigation found that infants given a first dose of the vaccine were at ~22-fold higher risk of intussusception from 3 to 14 days after vaccination compared to unvaccinated infants. [11] These results were central to suspension of the national recommendation to use Rotashield™, and led the manufacturer to withdraw the vaccine from the market, [39] [16] which paved the way for the development of safer rotavirus vaccines. [40] [12]

Research for the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)

At the CDC (1998-2014), Murphy led multi-disciplinary teams that performed critical research and analysis used for updating and creating new ACIP vaccine policy. She also led ACIP working groups that drafted national recommendations for prevention of infectious diseases, including Hib; [41] whooping cough (Bordetella pertussis); [42] [43] tetanus; [44] hepatitis B; [45] and hepatitis A [46] [47] virus infections.

Leadership

The Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society (PIDS) promotes the health of children through prevention and control of infectious diseases worldwide. Murphy's leadership in the organization includes election as Council Member at Large (now known as the board of directors) for 2000–2004, and election as a member of the Nominations and Awards Committee from 2007 to 2009. [17] She also was chair of the Training Programs Committee, a member of the Membership Committee, and served as the PIDS Liaison to both the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) Adult Infectious Disease Training Programs Committee, and the IDSA Public Health Committee.

Murphy served as the CDC representative for the FDA National Vaccine and Related Advisory Committee (NVRBAC) on licensure application of vaccines by Sanofi Pasteur (Pentacel, DTaP-IPV-Hib) (2007) [48] and by Dynavax (Heplisav, hepatitis B.

Murphy served as the CDC representative and subject matter expert to the WHO Consultation on Preventing Perinatal Hepatitis B Transmission, (2010) and Optimizing Hepatitis B vaccination Schedules (2014-2015). [49] [ citation needed ]

Awards and honors

For her work uncovering the risk of Rotashield vaccine causing acute bowel obstruction in infants, Murphy received the United States Department of Health and Human Services Secretary's Award for Distinguished Service in 2000. [17]

Murphy and her team on Rotashield vaccine was also recognized by the Charles Shepard Science Award presented by the CDC for the best manuscript on original research published in a reputable, peer-reviewed journal [50] (i.e., Murphy et al., New England Journal of Medicine 2001. [11]

Related Research Articles

ATC code J07Vaccines is a therapeutic subgroup of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System, a system of alphanumeric codes developed by the World Health Organization (WHO) for the classification of drugs and other medical products. Subgroup J07 is part of the anatomical group J Antiinfectives for systemic use.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">DPT vaccine</span> Combination vaccine

The DPT vaccine or DTP vaccine is a class of combination vaccines against three infectious diseases in humans: diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus (lockjaw). The vaccine components include diphtheria and tetanus toxoids, and either killed whole cells of the bacterium that causes pertussis or pertussis antigens. The term toxoid refers to vaccines which use an inactivated toxin produced by the pathogen which they are targeted against to generate an immune response. In this way, the toxoid vaccine generates an immune response which is targeted against the toxin which is produced by the pathogen and causes disease, rather than a vaccine which is targeted against the pathogen itself. The whole cells or antigens will be depicted as either "DTwP" or "DTaP", where the lower-case "w" indicates whole-cell inactivated pertussis and the lower-case "a" stands for "acellular". In comparison to alternative vaccine types, such as live attenuated vaccines, the DTP vaccine does not contain any live pathogen, but rather uses inactivated toxoid to generate an immune response; therefore, there is not a risk of use in populations that are immune compromised since there is not any known risk of causing the disease itself. As a result, the DTP vaccine is considered a safe vaccine to use in anyone and it generates a much more targeted immune response specific for the pathogen of interest.

<i>Haemophilus influenzae</i> Species of bacterium

Haemophilus influenzae is a Gram-negative, non-motile, coccobacillary, facultatively anaerobic, capnophilic pathogenic bacterium of the family Pasteurellaceae. The bacteria are mesophilic and grow best at temperatures between 35 and 37 °C.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Epiglottitis</span> Inflammation of the epiglottis

Epiglottitis is the inflammation of the epiglottis—the flap at the base of the tongue that prevents food entering the trachea (windpipe). Symptoms are usually rapid in onset and include trouble swallowing which can result in drooling, changes to the voice, fever, and an increased breathing rate. As the epiglottis is in the upper airway, swelling can interfere with breathing. People may lean forward in an effort to open the airway. As the condition worsens, stridor and bluish skin may occur.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conjugate vaccine</span> Type of vaccine

A conjugate vaccine is a type of subunit vaccine which combines a weak antigen with a strong antigen as a carrier so that the immune system has a stronger response to the weak antigen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Childhood immunizations in the United States</span>

The schedule for childhood immunizations in the United States is published by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The vaccination schedule is broken down by age: birth to six years of age, seven to eighteen, and adults nineteen and older. Childhood immunizations are key in preventing diseases with epidemic potential.

Neal A. Halsey is an American pediatrician, with sub-specialty training in infectious diseases, international health and epidemiology. Halsey is a professor emeritus of international health and director emeritus of the Institute for Vaccine Safety at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, in Baltimore, Maryland. He had a joint appointment in the Department of Pediatrics at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine and serves as co-director of the Center for Disease Studies and Control in Guatemala.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine</span> Vaccine against Strep pneumoniae

Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine is a pneumococcal vaccine made with the conjugate vaccine method and used to protect infants, young children, and adults against disease caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus). It contains purified capsular polysaccharide of pneumococcal serotypes conjugated to a carrier protein to improve antibody response compared to the pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the use of the conjugate vaccine in routine immunizations given to children.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hepatitis B vaccine</span> Vaccine against hepatitis B

Hepatitis B vaccine is a vaccine that prevents hepatitis B. The first dose is recommended within 24 hours of birth with either two or three more doses given after that. This includes those with poor immune function such as from HIV/AIDS and those born premature. It is also recommended that health-care workers be vaccinated. In healthy people, routine immunization results in more than 95% of people being protected.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hib vaccine</span> Haemophilus influenzae type B vaccine

The Haemophilus influenzae type B vaccine, also known as Hib vaccine, is a vaccine used to prevent Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) infection. In countries that include it as a routine vaccine, rates of severe Hib infections have decreased more than 90%. It has therefore resulted in a decrease in the rate of meningitis, pneumonia, and epiglottitis.

John Bennett Robbins was a senior investigator at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), best known for his contribution to the development of the vaccine against bacterial meningitis Hib)) with his colleague Rachel Schneerson. He conducted research on the Bethesda, Maryland campus of the NIH from 1970 until his retirement at the age of 80 in 2012. During his tenure, he worked in the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) and the Food and Drug Administration’s biologics laboratories on location.

Meningococcal vaccine refers to any vaccine used to prevent infection by Neisseria meningitidis. Different versions are effective against some or all of the following types of meningococcus: A, B, C, W-135, and Y. The vaccines are between 85 and 100% effective for at least two years. They result in a decrease in meningitis and sepsis among populations where they are widely used. They are given either by injection into a muscle or just under the skin.

Haemophilus meningitis is a form of bacterial meningitis caused by the Haemophilus influenzae bacteria. It is usually associated with Haemophilus influenzae type b. Meningitis involves the inflammation of the protective membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord. Haemophilus meningitis is characterized by symptoms including fever, nausea, sensitivity to light, headaches, stiff neck, anorexia, and seizures. Haemophilus meningitis can be deadly, but antibiotics are effective in treating the infection, especially when cases are caught early enough that the inflammation has not done a great deal of damage. Before the introduction of the Hib vaccine in 1985, Haemophilus meningitis was the leading cause of bacterial meningitis in children under the age of five. However, since the creation of the Hib vaccine, only two in every 100,000 children contract this type of meningitis. Five to ten percent of cases can be fatal, although the average mortality rate in developing nations is seventeen percent, mostly due to lack of access to vaccination as well as lack of access to medical care needed to combat the meningitis.

A Vaccine Information Statement (VIS) is a document designed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to provide information to a patient receiving a vaccine in the United States. The National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act requires that medical professionals provide a VIS to patients before receiving certain vaccinations. The VIS includes information about the vaccine's benefits and risks, a description of the vaccine, indications and contraindications, instructions for patients experiencing an adverse reaction, and additional resources.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tetanus vaccine</span> Vaccines used to prevent tetanus

Tetanus vaccine, also known as tetanus toxoid (TT), is a toxoid vaccine used to prevent tetanus. During childhood, five doses are recommended, with a sixth given during adolescence.

DTaP-IPV-HepB vaccine is a combination vaccine whose generic name is diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and acellular pertussis adsorbed, hepatitis B (recombinant) and inactivated polio vaccine or DTaP-IPV-Hep B. It protects against the infectious diseases diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, poliomyelitis, and hepatitis B.

DPT-Hib vaccine is a combination vaccine whose generic name is diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and whole-cell pertussis vaccine adsorbed with Hib conjugate vaccine, sometimes abbreviated to DPT-Hib. It protects against the infectious diseases diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, and Haemophilus influenzae type B.

Haemophilus B and hepatitis B vaccine is a combination vaccine whose generic name is Haemophilus b conjugate and hepatitis B recombinant vaccine. It protects against the infectious diseases Haemophilus influenzae type B and hepatitis B.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hexavalent vaccine</span> Single vaccine protecting against six individual diseases

A hexavalent vaccine, or 6-in-1 vaccine, is a combination vaccine with six individual vaccines conjugated into one, intended to protect people from multiple diseases. The term usually refers to the children's vaccine that protects against diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, poliomyelitis, haemophilus B, and hepatitis B, which is used in more than 90 countries around the world including in Europe, Canada, Australia, Jordan, and New Zealand.

Janet Gilsdorf is an American pediatric infectious diseases physician, scientist, and writer at the University of Michigan. Her research has focused on the pathogenic, molecular, and epidemiologic features of the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae. She served as the Director of the Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases in the University of Michigan Health System from 1989 to 2012 and Co-Director of the Center for Molecular and Clinical Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases at the School of Public Health at the University of Michigan from 2000 – 2015. In addition to her scientific publications, she is also the author of two novels, one memoir, one non-fiction book, and a number of medically-oriented essays.

References

  1. ↑ Murphy, T. V.; Osterholm, M. T.; Pierson, L. M.; White, K. E.; Breedlove, J. A.; Seibert, G. B.; Kuritsky, J. N.; Granoff, D. M. (1987-02-01). "Prospective surveillance of Haemophilus influenzae type b disease in Dallas County, Texas, and in Minnesota". Pediatrics. 79 (2): 173–180. doi:10.1542/peds.79.2.173. ISSN   0031-4005. PMID   3492702. S2CID   25939698.
  2. 1 2 Pastor, P.; Medley, F.; Murphy, T. V. (1998-03-01). "Invasive pneumococcal disease in Dallas County, Texas: results from population-based surveillance in 1995". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 26 (3): 590–595. doi: 10.1086/514589 . ISSN   1058-4838. PMID   9524828.
  3. 1 2 3 Adcock, P. M.; Pastor, P.; Medley, F.; Patterson, J. E.; Murphy, T. V. (1998-08-01). "Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in two child care centers". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 178 (2): 577–580. doi: 10.1086/517478 . ISSN   0022-1899. PMID   9697748.
  4. 1 2 Murphy, T. V.; Granoff, D.; Chrane, D. F.; Olsen, K. D.; Barenkamp, S. J.; Dowell, S. F.; McCracken, G. H. (1985-05-01). "Pharyngeal colonization with Haemophilus influenzae type b in children in a day care center without invasive disease". The Journal of Pediatrics. 106 (5): 712–716. doi:10.1016/s0022-3476(85)80341-3. ISSN   0022-3476. PMID   3873532.
  5. ↑ Osterholm, M. T.; Kuritsky, J. N.; Murphy, T. V.; Mead, W. C. (1985-05-10). "Haemophilus influenzae type b in day care centers". JAMA. 253 (18): 2647–2648. doi:10.1001/jama.253.18.2647. ISSN   0098-7484. PMID   3872948.
  6. 1 2 3 Murphy, T. V.; Pastor, P.; Medley, F.; Osterholm, M. T.; Granoff, D. M. (1993-04-01). "Decreased Haemophilus colonization in children vaccinated with Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccine". The Journal of Pediatrics. 122 (4): 517–523. doi:10.1016/s0022-3476(05)83529-2. ISSN   0022-3476. PMID   8463894.
  7. ↑ Barbour, Marina L (1996). "Conjugate Vaccines and the Carriage of Haemophilus influenzae type b". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2 (3): 176–182. doi:10.3201/eid0203.960303. PMC   2626802 . PMID   8903227.
  8. ↑ Shapiro, E. D.; Murphy, T. V.; Wald, E. R.; Brady, C. A. (1988-09-09). "The protective efficacy of Haemophilus b polysaccharide vaccine". JAMA. 260 (10): 1419–1422. doi:10.1001/jama.1988.03410100109034. ISSN   0098-7484. PMID   3261349.
  9. 1 2 Murphy, T. V.; White, K. E.; Pastor, P.; Gabriel, L.; Medley, F.; Granoff, D. M.; Osterholm, M. T. (1993-01-13). "Declining incidence of Haemophilus influenzae type b disease since introduction of vaccination". JAMA. 269 (2): 246–248. doi:10.1001/jama.1993.03500020080036. ISSN   0098-7484. PMID   8417244.
  10. 1 2 Murphy, Trudy V.; Clements, Joe F.; Breedlove, Jeri A.; Hansen, Eric J.; Seibert, G. Burton (1987-01-01). "Risk of Subsequent Disease among Day-Care Contacts of Patients with Systemic Hemophilus Influenzae Type B Disease". New England Journal of Medicine. 316 (1): 5–10. doi:10.1056/NEJM198701013160102. ISSN   0028-4793. PMID   3491319.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 Murphy, T. V.; Gargiullo, P. M.; Massoudi, M. S.; Nelson, D. B.; Jumaan, A. O.; Okoro, C. A.; Zanardi, L. R.; Setia, S.; Fair, E.; LeBaron, C. W.; Wharton, M.; Livengood, J. R.; Rotavirus Intussusception Investigation Team (2001-02-22). "Intussusception among infants given an oral rotavirus vaccine". The New England Journal of Medicine. 344 (8): 564–572. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200102223440804 . ISSN   0028-4793. PMID   11207352.
  12. 1 2 Orenstein, Walter A; Offit, Paul A; Edwards, Kathryn M; Plotkin, Stanley A (2022). Plotkin's Vaccines (8th ed.). Elsevier. pp. 1005–1024. ISBN   9780323790598.
  13. 1 2 3 Desselberger, Ulrich (2014-09-22). "Rotaviruses". Virus Research. 190: 75–96. doi: 10.1016/j.virusres.2014.06.016 . ISSN   0168-1702. PMID   25016036.
  14. ↑ Murphy, Trudy V.; Smith, Philip J.; Gargiullo, Paul M.; Schwartz, Benjamin (2003-04-15). "The first rotavirus vaccine and intussusception: epidemiological studies and policy decisions". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 187 (8): 1309–1313. doi:10.1086/374420. ISSN   0022-1899. PMID   12696011. S2CID   27772541.
  15. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2004-09-03). "Suspension of rotavirus vaccine after reports of intussusception--United States, 1999". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 53 (34): 786–789. ISSN   1545-861X. PMID   15343145.
  16. 1 2 Delage, G. (2000-01-01). "Rotavirus vaccine withdrawal in the United states; the role of postmarketing surveillance". The Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases. 11 (1): 10–12. doi: 10.1155/2000/414396 . ISSN   1180-2332. PMC   2094741 . PMID   18159257.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "PIDS Foundation News: Trudy Murphy (Donor) – Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society". pids.org. Retrieved 2023-08-15.
  18. ↑ "George Noller - Nuclear Museum". ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/. Retrieved 2023-08-17.
  19. 1 2 "My Bibliography - NCBI". www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2023-08-15.
  20. ↑ McGowan, J. E.; Klein, J. O.; Bratton, L.; Barnes, M. W.; Finland, M. (1974-08-01). "Meningitis and Bacteremia due to Haemophilus influenzae: Occurrence and Mortality at Boston City Hospital in 12 Selected Years, 1935-1972". Journal of Infectious Diseases. 130 (2): 119–124. doi:10.1093/infdis/130.2.119. ISSN   0022-1899. PMID   4152256.
  21. ↑ Ginsburg, C. M.; McCracken, G. H.; Rae, S.; Parke, J. C. (1977-08-15). "Haemophilus influenzae type b disease. Incidence in a day-care center". JAMA. 238 (7): 604–607. doi:10.1001/jama.1977.03280070044021. ISSN   0098-7484. PMID   301947.
  22. ↑ Goodman, R. A.; Osterholm, M. T.; Granoff, D. M.; Pickering, L. K. (1984-07-01). "Infectious diseases and child day care". Pediatrics. 74 (1): 134–139. doi:10.1542/peds.74.1.134. ISSN   0031-4005. PMID   6330662. S2CID   46163574.
  23. 1 2 Cuevas, L. E.; Hart, C. A. (1993-01-01). "Chemoprophylaxis of bacterial meningitis". Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 31 (suppl B): 79–91. doi:10.1093/jac/31.suppl_b.79. ISSN   0305-7453. PMID   8449848.
  24. ↑ Gilsdorf, Janet; Granoff, Dan; Murphy, Trudy; Osterholm, Michael (1984-11-01). "Guidelines for dealing with the guidelines: Rifampin prophylaxis for day care contacts of patients with serious Haemophilus influenzae type b infections". The Journal of Pediatrics. 105 (5): 761–763. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(84)80298-X. PMID   6334148.
  25. ↑ Shapiro, Eugene D.; Ward, Joel I. (1991). "The Epidemiology and Prevention of Disease Caused by Haemophilus influenzae Type b". Epidemiologic Reviews. 13 (1): 113–142. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.epirev.a036066. ISSN   1478-6729. PMID   1765109.
  26. ↑ Osterholm, M. T.; Rambeck, J. H.; White, K. E.; Jacobs, J. L.; Pierson, L. M.; Neaton, J. D.; Hedberg, C. W.; MacDonald, K. L.; Granoff, D. M. (1988-09-09). "Lack of efficacy of Haemophilus b polysaccharide vaccine in Minnesota". JAMA. 260 (10): 1423–1428. doi:10.1001/jama.1988.03410100113035. ISSN   0098-7484. PMID   3261350.
  27. 1 2 Maiden, Martin C. J. (2013-08-05). "The impact of protein-conjugate polysaccharide vaccines: an endgame for meningitis?". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 368 (1623): 20120147. doi:10.1098/rstb.2012.0147. ISSN   0962-8436. PMC   3720045 . PMID   23798695.
  28. ↑ Granoff, Dan M.; Boies, Eyla G.; Munson, Robert S. (1984-07-01). "Immunogenicity of Haemophilus influenzae type b polysaccharide—diphtheria toxoid conjugate vaccine in adults". The Journal of Pediatrics. 105 (1): 22–27. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(84)80350-9. PMID   6610736.
  29. ↑ Weinberg, Geoffrey A.; Granoff, Dan M. (1988-10-01). "Polysaccharide-protein conjugate vaccines for the prevention of Haemophilus influenzae type b disease". The Journal of Pediatrics. 113 (4): 621–631. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(88)80369-X. PMID   3050001.
  30. ↑ Hassan-King, M.K.A.; Wall, R.A.; Greenwood, B.M. (1988-01-01). "Meningococcal carriage, meningococcal disease and vaccination". Journal of Infection. 16 (1): 55–59. doi:10.1016/S0163-4453(88)96117-8. PMID   3130424.
  31. ↑ Herva, E.; Luotonen, J.; Timonen, M.; Sibakov, M.; Karma, P.; Mäkelä, P. H. (1980). "The effect of polyvalent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine on nasopharyngeal and nasal carriage of Streptococcus pneumoniae". Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases. 12 (2): 97–100. doi:10.3109/inf.1980.12.issue-2.04. ISSN   0036-5548. PMID   6990475.
  32. 1 2 Schuchat, Anne; Robinson, Katherine; Wenger, Jay D.; Harrison, Lee H.; Farley, Monica; Reingold, Arthur L.; Lefkowitz, Lewis; Perkins, Bradley A. (1997-10-02). "Bacterial Meningitis in the United States in 1995". New England Journal of Medicine. 337 (14): 970–976. doi:10.1056/NEJM199710023371404. ISSN   0028-4793. PMID   9395430.
  33. ↑ Takala, AK (1994). Effect of Vaccination on Oropharyngeal Carriage, in, Development and clinical uses of Haemophilus b conjugate vaccines. New York: M Dekker. pp. 403–418.
  34. ↑ Kelly, Dominic F.; Moxon, E. Richard; Pollard, Andrew J. (2004). "Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccines". Immunology. 113 (2): 163–174. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2567.2004.01971.x. ISSN   0019-2805. PMC   1782565 . PMID   15379976.
  35. ↑ Pastor, P.; Medley, F. B.; Murphy, T. V. (2000-04-01). "Meningococcal disease in Dallas County, Texas: results of a six-year population-based study". The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 19 (4): 324–328. doi:10.1097/00006454-200004000-00012. ISSN   0891-3668. PMID   10783023. S2CID   5752532.
  36. ↑ Pastor, Patricia; Medley, Francinne B.; Murphy, Trudy V. (2000-04-01). "Meningococcal disease in Dallas County, Texas: results of a six-year population-based study". The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. 19 (4): 324–328. doi:10.1097/00006454-200004000-00012. ISSN   0891-3668. PMID   10783023. S2CID   5752532.
  37. ↑ Coats, Mamie T.; Murphy, Trudy; Paton, James C.; Gray, Barry; Briles, David E. (2011-06-01). "Exposure of Thomsen-Friedenreich antigen in Streptococcus pneumoniae infection is dependent on pneumococcal neuraminidase A". Microbial Pathogenesis. 50 (6): 343–349. doi:10.1016/j.micpath.2011.02.010. ISSN   1096-1208. PMC   3088309 . PMID   21377521.
  38. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (1998-11-20). "Laboratory-based surveillance for rotavirus--United States, July 1997-June 1998". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 47 (45): 978–980. ISSN   0149-2195. PMID   9843356.
  39. 1 2 Matson, David O (2006). "RotaShield: The Ill-Fated Rhesus-Human Reassortant Rotavirus Vaccine". Pediatric Annals. 35 (1): 44–50. doi:10.3928/0090-4481-20060101-13. ISSN   0090-4481. PMID   16466075.
  40. ↑ Glass, Roger I.; Tate, Jacqueline E.; Jiang, Baoming; Parashar, Umesh (2021-09-30). "The Rotavirus Vaccine Story: From Discovery to the Eventual Control of Rotavirus Disease". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 224 (12 Suppl 2): S331–S342. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiaa598. ISSN   1537-6613. PMC   8482027 . PMID   34590142.
  41. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2002-03-22). "Progress toward elimination of Haemophilus influenzae type b invasive disease among infants and children--United States, 1998-2000". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 51 (11): 234–237. ISSN   0149-2195. PMID   11925021.
  42. ↑ Broder, Karen R.; Cortese, Margaret M.; Iskander, John K.; Kretsinger, Katrina; Slade, Barbara A.; Brown, Kristin H.; Mijalski, Christina M.; Tiwari, Tejpratap; Weston, Emily J.; Cohn, Amanda C.; Srivastava, Pamela U.; Moran, John S.; Schwartz, Benjamin; Murphy, Trudy V.; Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) (2006-03-24). "Preventing tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis among adolescents: use of tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid and acellular pertussis vaccines recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)". MMWR. Recommendations and Reports. 55 (RR-3): 1–34. ISSN   1545-8601. PMID   16557217.
  43. ↑ Murphy, Trudy V.; Slade, Barbara A.; Broder, Karen R.; Kretsinger, Katrina; Tiwari, Tejpratap; Joyce, Patricia M.; Iskander, John K.; Brown, Kristin; Moran, John S.; Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2008-05-30). "Prevention of pertussis, tetanus, and diphtheria among pregnant and postpartum women and their infants recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)". MMWR. Recommendations and Reports. 57 (RR-4): 1–51. ISSN   1545-8601. PMID   18509304.
  44. ↑ Pascual, F. Brian; McGinley, Emily L.; Zanardi, Lynn R.; Cortese, Margaret M.; Murphy, Trudy V. (2003-06-20). "Tetanus surveillance--United States, 1998--2000". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Surveillance Summaries. 52 (3): 1–8. ISSN   1546-0738. PMID   12825541.
  45. ↑ Schillie, Sarah; Murphy, Trudy V.; Sawyer, Mark; Ly, Kathleen; Hughes, Elizabeth; Jiles, Ruth; de Perio, Marie A.; Reilly, Meredith; Byrd, Kathy; Ward, John W.; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2013-12-20). "CDC guidance for evaluating health-care personnel for hepatitis B virus protection and for administering postexposure management". MMWR. Recommendations and Reports. 62 (RR-10): 1–19. ISSN   1545-8601. PMID   24352112.
  46. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC); Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (2009-09-18). "Updated recommendations from the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) for use of hepatitis A vaccine in close contacts of newly arriving international adoptees". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 58 (36): 1006–1007. ISSN   1545-861X. PMID   19763077.
  47. ↑ Murphy, Trudy V.; Denniston, Maxine M.; Hill, Holly A.; McDonald, Marian; Klevens, Monina R.; Elam-Evans, Laurie D.; Nelson, Noele P.; Iskander, John; Ward, John D. (2016-02-12). "Progress Toward Eliminating Hepatitis A Disease in the United States". MMWR Supplements. 65 (1): 29–41. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.su6501a6 . ISSN   2380-8942. PMID   26916458.
  48. ↑ White, Craig; Halperin, Scott A; Scheifele, David W (2009). "Pediatric combined formulation DTaP–IPV/Hib vaccine". Expert Review of Vaccines. 8 (7): 831–840. doi:10.1586/erv.09.59. ISSN   1476-0584. PMID   19538110. S2CID   19264559.
  49. ↑ "Hepatitis B vaccines: WHO position paper". Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 92 (27): 369–92. July 17, 2012. PMID   28685564.
  50. ↑ "CDC - 2018 Shepard Science Awards - Advancing Excellence and Integrity of CDC Science - SPA - OADS". www.cdc.gov. 2022-01-03. Retrieved 2023-08-16.
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