Underworld Vision of an Assyrian Prince

Last updated

Underworld Vision of an Assyrian Prince is a Neo-Assyrian text dated to the 7th century BCE. Called the "first tour of hell", [1] it describes a vivid journey to the Underworld taken by Kumma, the Assyrian prince and protagonist of the story. The Underworld Vision is recorded on a single tablet (VAT 10057) excavated from Assur. [2] It is rooted in older Mesopotamian underworld myths such as The Epic of Gilgamesh , [1] [3] [4] although it is also similar to other texts such as Ludlul bēl nēmeqi . [3] , and it contains Egyptian influences. [2] [4] It has been noted that the story has no parallel in Assyrian texts, [2] and is considered innovative with its use of the "Göttertypentext" format [1] [3] [5] . It has also been suggested that the Underworld Vision influenced later Jewish literature. [6]

Contents

Identity of Kumma

There has been attempts to connect Kumma to a real Assyrian king. Ashurbanipal was proposed by Wolfram von Soden, and the scribe mentioned at the end of the text was speculated to be Arad-Gula, a scholar active in the court of Esarhaddon but lost his position during the reign of Ashurbanipal. [7] . However, the description of the dead king's deeds matches those of Sennacherib [8]

Text

Obverse

The beginning of the text is badly damaged. The opening may refer to a divination or an offering, after which an unknown individual begins to hoard wealth and neglect his duty to care for the gods. [9] The unknown individual may have been Kumma's father [7] or Kumma himself [2] . A scribe is introduced in line 17, and then an unknown individual, either the prince or the king, became distressed, wandering the streets and crying in the night. He then went to the temple, made an offering and invoked Allatu, here seemingly synonymous with Ereshkigal. Ereshkigal then appeared in Kumma's dream at night, saying she would hear his prayers, but then claimed that she could not answer and asked why he turned to her instead of Shamash. [9] Von Soden reads that Ereshkigal may have offered Kumma a one-time use of the ability of dream interpretation, which is why she said that she could not help him. [10] Kumma then awakens from his dream, crying and pleaded to Ereshkigal again. Kumma may have insulted Ereshkigal between the dream and after waking up, as Nergal later asked him why he insulted Ereshkigal, Nergal's wife.

Reverse

The reverse side is better preserved than the obverse side. It begins with Kumma laying down to have a second dream. This section is recounted in first person, from Kumma's point of view. The text begins by talking about the vaious underworld gods Kumma encountered in the underworld.

First he saw Namtar, the "vizier of the underworld who fashions the visceral omens" [9] , standing behind a man. He was holding his hair in his left hand and a daggar on his right hand. Namtartu, described as Namtar's female counterpart, had the head of a protective spirit, [7] and the hands and feet of a human. Kumma then saw death, described as having the head of a MUŠ.ḪUŠ (Mušḫuššu), hands of a human, and the word describing his feet was not preserved. The evil spirit (šēdu lemnu) had the head and hands of a human, a crown on his head, feet of an eagle and was trampling a crocodile with his left foot. Alluhappu had the head of a lion and human hands and feet. The "Upholder of Evil" had the head of a bird, hands and feet of a human, and was described as flying with wings. Humuṭ-tabal, the boatman of the underworld, had the head of Anzu, and his hands and feet were not preserved. The Ghost had the head of an ox, and hands and feet of Anzu. Šulak was a lion that stood on his hind legs (and is known elsewhere as a lurker of bathrooms). [5] Oath (mamitu) had the head of a goat. Nedu, described as the gatekeeper of the underworld, had the head of a lion, hands of a human and feet of a bird. Anything/total evil (mimma lemnu) had two heads, one being the head of lion, and the second head was not preserved. Muhra had three feet, the two front ones being those of a bird and the rear one being a bull, and he had terrifying splendor (melammu). Kumma also saw two gods that he did not recognize; one had the head, hands and feet of Anzu was holding something in his left hand, and the other had the head of a man and was wearing a crown. All in all, Kumma counted fifteen gods and then saluted all of them. He then saw a man with a pitch black body with a face resembling Anzu dressed in red who was holding a bow in his left hand and a dagger in his right, and trampling on a snake with his left foot. [9]

Kumma then saw Nergal, seated on his throne and holding two maces. Lightning was flashing and the gods of the underworld all kneeled. Nergal then proceeded to grab Kumma by his hair, causing Kumma to shiver in fear and kneel down. Nergal would have killed the crown prince if not for the timely intervention of Nergal's vizier, Ishum, who convinced Nergal to spare Kumma. Nergal then asked why he insulted Ereshkigal, although no response was given. Nergal promises to let him go, but threatens annihilation if he dares forget him. He then shows Kumma the corpse of the king, his father, telling him that the king fulfilled his duty and is protected along with his successors and army. [9]

Kumma wakes up and the narrative switches back to third person. He runs outside and laments his fate in front of the public, and praised Nergal and Ereshkigal for coming to his aid. A scribe who overheard Kumma then reported this to the palace [9] , either out of loyalty [7] or to atone for corruption. [2]

Similarities to other texts

Göttertypentext

The passage in the Underworld Vision where Kumma described the inhabitants of the underworld uses a similar structure to the Göttertypentext . The Göttertypentext describes twenty-seven divine statues from head to toe, in descriptive detail, and then gives the name of the being described. The Underworld Vision reverses the structure by first giving the name before describing them, albeit in less detail and only describing their heads, hands and feet. Johannes Bach explains how this can be an example of hypertextual Transtextuality. [3] This section in the Underworld Vision can be considered a derivative of the Göttertypentext, being narrated in first person, describing the actual gods instead of statues. [1]

Epic of Gilgamesh

Outside of both Underworld Vision and tablet twelve of Gilgamesh offering a tour of hell, specific references to the Epic of Gilgamesh could be found in the Underworld Vision.

In his second dream Kumma, after saluting to the underworld gods, described seeing a man with a black body and the face of the Anzû, dressed in red, holding a bow in one hand and a dagger in the other and trampling on a snake.

"There was a man, his body black as pitch, his face resembling that of Anzû; he was clad in red armour. In his left hand he carried a bow, in his right hand he wielded a dagger, while he trampled on a snake with his left foot [9] ."

Enkidu in tablet seven of Epic of Gilgamesh describes a similar man in his dream, before he physically died.

"There was a young man, whose face was obscured. His face was that of an Anzu-bird. He had the paws of a lion, he had the claws of an eagle. He seized me by my locks, using great force against me. I hit him, and he jumped like a keppū-toy, he hit me and forced me down like an [onager(?)], like a wild bull he trampled on me, he squeezed my whole body. (I cried out:) "Save me, my friend, don't desert me!" But you were afraid, and did not [help me(?)], you [......]. [He hit me and] turned me into a dove. [......] my arms, like a bird. He seized me, drove me down to the dark house, dwelling of Erkalla's god [11] ."

While this is not a complete match as the man Enkidu described had the hands of a lion and claws of an eagle, the wording in both texts are the same or with slight variations, suggesting that the scribe was familiar with the Epic of Gilgamesh. [3] However unlike Enkidu, who died soon after his dream of entering the underworld, Kumma lived after Nergal let him go. [4] Another connection with the Epic of Gilgamesh is the description of death. [3] In the Epic of Gilgamesh, Utnapishtim comments on the unseen nature of death.

"Nobody sees Death, nobody sees the face of Death, nobody hears the voice of Death. Savage Death just cuts mankind down [11] ."

However, Kumma described the physical appearance of death in the Underworld Vision, contradicting the Epic of Gilgamesh in a somewhat humourous way.

"Death had the head of a dragon, his hands were human, his feet [...] [9] ."

Apocalyptic literature

It has been suggested that the Underworld Vision is a forerunner to apocalyptic literature. [1] The Biblical Book of Ezekiel in general is recognized to have Mesopotamian influences, [12] and the description of the underworld in Ezekiel can be explained by Mesopotamian literature such as the Underworld Vision. [6] Similarities between Daniel 7 and the Underworld Vision were also pointed out. [13]

Other similarities and influences

The description of the inhabitants of the underworld is noted to fit Egyptian New Kingdom artistic depictions of the underworld, [4] and some of the gods described could be traced to Egyptian influences. For example, the evil spirit was described to be trampling on a crocodile, which is not native to Mesopotamia but well known in Egypt. Another example is the reference to the Egyptian smiting scene in Namtar, who was grasping someone's head by their hair in one hand and holding a dagger in the other. The smiting scene is a well known artistic motif beginning from the Narmer Palette, spreading to the Levant but seldomly attested in Assyria. [2]

Some of the underworld gods described also fit the guardian figures depicted in Assyrian palaces. The evil spirit and Nedu both had lion heads, human hands, and bird-like feet, which fit the ugallu, seen from Sennacherib's and Ashurbanipal's reliefs. [4] [8]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Enlil</span> Ancient Mesopotamian god

Enlil, later known as Elil, is an ancient Mesopotamian god associated with wind, air, earth, and storms. He is first attested as the chief deity of the Sumerian pantheon, but he was later worshipped by the Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Hurrians. Enlil's primary center of worship was the Ekur temple in the city of Nippur, which was believed to have been built by Enlil himself and was regarded as the "mooring-rope" of heaven and earth. He is also sometimes referred to in Sumerian texts as Nunamnir. According to one Sumerian hymn, Enlil himself was so holy that not even the other gods could look upon him. Enlil rose to prominence during the twenty-fourth century BC with the rise of Nippur. His cult fell into decline after Nippur was sacked by the Elamites in 1230 BC and he was eventually supplanted as the chief god of the Mesopotamian pantheon by the Babylonian national god Marduk.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gilgamesh</span> Sumerian ruler and protagonist of the Epic of Gilgamesh

Gilgamesh was a hero in ancient Mesopotamian mythology and the protagonist of the Epic of Gilgamesh, an epic poem written in Akkadian during the late 2nd millennium BC. He was possibly a historical king of the Sumerian city-state of Uruk, who was posthumously deified. His rule probably would have taken place sometime in the beginning of the Early Dynastic Period, c. 2900 – 2350 BC, though he became a major figure in Sumerian legend during the Third Dynasty of Ur.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inanna</span> Ancient Mesopotamian goddess

Inanna is the ancient Mesopotamian goddess of love, war, and fertility. She is also associated with beauty, sex, divine law, and political power. Originally worshiped in Sumer, she was known by the Akkadian Empire, Babylonians, and Assyrians as Ishtar. Her primary title was "the Queen of Heaven".

Akkadian literature is the ancient literature written in the Akkadian language in Mesopotamia during the period spanning the Middle Bronze Age to the Iron Age.

<i>Epic of Gilgamesh</i> Epic poem from Mesopotamia

The Epic of Gilgamesh is an epic poem from ancient Mesopotamia. The literary history of Gilgamesh begins with five Sumerian poems about Bilgamesh, king of Uruk, dating from the Third Dynasty of Ur. These independent stories were later used as source material for a combined epic in Akkadian. The first surviving version of this combined epic, known as the "Old Babylonian" version, dates back to the 18th century BC and is titled after its incipit, Shūtur eli sharrī. Only a few tablets of it have survived. The later Standard Babylonian version compiled by Sîn-lēqi-unninni dates from the 13th to the 10th centuries BC and bears the incipit Sha naqba īmuru. Approximately two-thirds of this longer, twelve-tablet version have been recovered. Some of the best copies were discovered in the library ruins of the 7th-century BC Assyrian king Ashurbanipal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nergal</span> Mesopotamian god of death

Nergal was a Mesopotamian god worshiped through all periods of Mesopotamian history, from Early Dynastic to Neo-Babylonian times, with a few attestations indicating that his cult survived into the period of Achaemenid domination. He was primarily associated with war, death, and disease, and has been described as the "god of inflicted death". He reigned over Kur, the Mesopotamian underworld, depending on the myth either on behalf of his parents Enlil and Ninlil, or in later periods as a result of his marriage with the goddess Ereshkigal. Originally either Mammitum, a goddess possibly connected to frost, or Laṣ, sometimes assumed to be a minor medicine goddess, were regarded as his wife, though other traditions existed, too.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ereshkigal</span> Ancient Mesopotamian goddess of death and the underworld

In Mesopotamian mythology, Ereshkigal was the goddess of Kur, the land of the dead or underworld in Sumerian mythology. In later myths, she was said to rule Irkalla alongside her husband Nergal. Sometimes her name is given as Irkalla, similar to the way the name Hades was used in Greek mythology for both the underworld and its ruler, and sometimes it is given as Ninkigal, lit. "Lady of the Great Earth".

Namtar was a figure in ancient Mesopotamian religion who, depending on the context, could be regarded both as a minor god and as a demon of disease. He is best attested as the sukkal of Ereshkigal, the goddess of the underworld. Like her, he was not the object of active worship, though references to it are made in literary texts, and additionally some incantations entrust him with keeping various other malevolent forces in the underworld.

Mamitu was a Mesopotamian goddess associated with the underworld. She was regarded as the wife of Nergal, or sometimes of other gods regarded as analogous to him, such as Erra. Her importance in Mesopotamian religion was minor, and she was most likely chiefly worshiped in Kutha, though attestations are available from other cities too. It is possible that she was the forerunner of Mandean Amamit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Humbaba</span> Character in Gilgamesh myths

Humbaba, originally known as Ḫuwawa, was a figure in Mesopotamian mythology. The origin and meaning of his name are unknown. He was portrayed as an anthropomorphic figure comparable to an ogre, giant or demon. He is best known from myths focused on the hero Gilgamesh, including short compositions belonging to the curriculum of scribal schools, various versions of the Epic of Gilgamesh, and additionally Hurrian and Hittite adaptations. He is invariably portrayed as the inhabitant or guardian of the cedar forest to which Gilgamesh ventures with his companion Enkidu. They clash, which leads to the death of Humbaba. The event typically causes the anger of the gods. He is also attested in other works of Mesopotamian literature. Multiple depictions of him have also been identified, including combat scenes and apotropaic clay heads.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anzû</span> Ancient Mesopotamian deity

Anzû, also known as dZû and Imdugud, is a monster in several Mesopotamian religions. He was conceived by the pure waters of the Apsu and the wide Earth, or as son of Siris. Anzû was depicted as a massive bird who can breathe fire and water, although Anzû is alternately depicted as a lion-headed eagle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Enkidu</span> Character from the Epic of Gilgamesh

Enkidu (Sumerian: 𒂗𒆠𒄭EN.KI.DU10) was a legendary figure in ancient Mesopotamian mythology, wartime comrade and friend of Gilgamesh, king of Uruk. Their exploits were composed in Sumerian poems and in the Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh, written during the 2nd millennium BC. He is the oldest literary representation of the wild man, a recurrent motif in artistic representations in Mesopotamia and in Ancient Near East literature. The apparition of Enkidu as a primitive man seems to be a potential parallel of the Old Babylonian version (1300–1000 BC), in which he was depicted as a servant-warrior in the Sumerian poems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cedar Forest</span> Mythological realm

The Cedar Forest is the glorious realm of the gods of Mesopotamian mythology. It is guarded by the demigod Humbaba and was once entered by the hero Gilgamesh who dared cut down trees from its virgin stands during his quest for fame. The Cedar Forest is described in Tablets 4–6 of the Epic of Gilgamesh.

Ninazu was a Mesopotamian god of the underworld of Sumerian origin. He was also associated with snakes and vegetation, and with time acquired the character of a warrior god. He was frequently associated with Ereshkigal, either as a son, husband, or simply as a deity belonging to the same category of underworld gods.

Belet-Seri was a Mesopotamian goddess who served as a scribe in the court of the underworld goddess Ereshkigal. She could be regarded as the Akkadian counterpart of Sumerian Geshtinanna, but the name could also function as a title of Ašratum, the wife of Amurru, or as a fully independent deity.

Bitu or Bidu was a minor Mesopotamian god who served as the doorkeeper of the underworld. His name is Akkadian in origin, but he is present in Sumerian sources as well.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sumerian religion</span> First religion of Mesopotamia region which is tangible by writing

Sumerian religion was the religion practiced by the people of Sumer, the first literate civilization of ancient Mesopotamia. The Sumerians regarded their divinities as responsible for all matters pertaining to the natural and social orders.

There are many references to ghosts in ancient Mesopotamian religion – the religions of Sumer, Babylon, Assyria and other early states in Mesopotamia. Traces of these beliefs survive in the later Abrahamic religions that came to dominate the region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bull of Heaven</span> Figure in ancient Mesopotamian mythology

In ancient Mesopotamian mythology, the Bull of Heaven is a mythical beast fought by the hero Gilgamesh. The story of the Bull of Heaven has two different versions: one recorded in an earlier Sumerian poem and a later version in the standard Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh. In the Sumerian poem, the Bull is sent to attack Gilgamesh by the goddess Inanna for reasons that are unclear.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ancient Mesopotamian underworld</span> Concept of the underworld in ancient Mesopotamian culture

The ancient Mesopotamian underworld, most often known in Sumerian as Kur, Irkalla, Kukku, Arali, or Kigal and in Akkadian as Erṣetu, although it had many names in both languages, was a dark, dreary cavern located deep below the ground, where inhabitants were believed to continue "a transpositional version of life on earth". The only food or drink was dry dust, but family members of the deceased would pour sacred mineral libations from the earth for them to drink. In the Sumerian underworld, it was initially believed that there was no final judgement of the deceased and the dead were neither punished nor rewarded for their deeds in life.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Sanders, Seth (2009). "The First Tour of Hell: From Neo-Assyrian Propaganda to Early Jewish Revelation". Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions. 9 (2): 151–169. doi:10.1163/156921109X12520501747831. ISSN   1569-2116.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Loktionov, Alexandre Alexandrovich (2016-05-01). "An "Egyptianising" Underworld Judging an Assyrian Prince? New Perspectives on VAT 10057". Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History. 3 (1): 39–55. doi:10.1515/janeh-2016-0012. ISSN   2328-9562. S2CID   58944932.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Bach, Johannes (2018-08-21), "A Transtextual View on the "Underworld Vision of an Assyrian Prince"", Mesopotamian Medicine and Magic, BRILL, pp. 69–92, doi:10.1163/9789004368088_006, hdl:10138/348401, ISBN   978-90-04-36808-8, S2CID   201522427 , retrieved 2023-08-21
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Ataç, Mehmet-Ali (January 2004). "The "Underworld Vision" of the Ninevite intellectual milieu". IRAQ. 66: 67–76. doi:10.2307/4200561. ISSN   0021-0889. JSTOR   4200561.
  5. 1 2 Wiggermann, Frans (2011-01-01). "The Mesopotamian Pandemonium". SMSR 77/2.
  6. 1 2 Wells, Sara; Hays, Christopher B. (2020). "Gradations of Degradation: Ezekiel's Underworld as a Temple of Doom". Old Testament Essays. 33 (33). doi:10.17159/2312-3621/2020/v33n3a8. S2CID   236073495.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Foster, Benjamin R. (30 June 2005). Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akkadian Literature. CDL Press. pp. 730–737. ISBN   978-1883053765.
  8. 1 2 Livingstone, Alasdair (1989). "Court Poetry and Literary Miscellanea". State Archives of Assyria. 3.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "SAA 03 032. The Underworld Vision of an Assyrian Prince (ZA 43 1)". oracc.museum.upenn.edu. Retrieved 2023-08-21.
  10. ↑ Von Soden, Wolfram (1987). "Insâta "du bist Traumdeuter"" (PDF). NABU: Nouvelles Assyriologiques Brèves et Utilitaires: 6.
  11. 1 2 Dalley, Stephanie, ed. (2008). Myths from Mesopotamia: creation, the flood, Gilgamesh, and others. Oxford world's classics (Revised edition, reissued ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-953836-2.
  12. ↑ Zelig Aster, Shawn (2015-07-01). "Ezekiel's Adaptation of Mesopotamian Melammu". Die Welt des Orients. 45 (1): 10–21. doi:10.13109/wdor.2015.45.1.10. ISSN   0043-2547.
  13. ↑ Kvanvig, Helge S. (January 1981). "An Akkadian vision as background for Dan 7?". Studia Theologica - Nordic Journal of Theology. 35 (1): 85–89. doi:10.1080/00393388108599999. ISSN   0039-338X.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.