Violence against transgender people in the United States

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Poster from the Drag March for Change in Chicago, Illinois. The march was held in June 2020. BlackTransLivesMatterMarchChicago2020 (cropped).jpg
Poster from the Drag March for Change in Chicago, Illinois. The march was held in June 2020.

Violence against transgender people in the United States includes sexual, physical, and emotional violence. These acts of gender-based violence may result in the death of a transgender person. Transgender people are more likely to be violently attacked than cisgender ones. [1] Between 2008 and 2020, 271 murders on trans people were reported in USA, giving c. 0.83 murders per 1,000,000 inhabitants and placing USA somewhere in the middle between "safe" and "unsafe" states, with reservation for inaccuracies and possible underreporting from some locations. [2]

Contents

Sexual violence

Sexual violence is defined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as an "experience of a sexual act (e.g., rape, unwanted sexual touching, pressure or coercion to engage in sexual acts) committed against an individual without their freely given consent". [3] The documentation of sexual assault cases against transgender individuals is limited. According to the 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey, 37% of transgender women and 51% of transgender men have been sexually assaulted in their lifetime. [4]

Instances of sexual violence against transgender women happen for the first time at the median age of 15 years old. [5] The notion that transgender youth are more likely to experience acts of sexual violence has been verified by several other studies. These acts occur most often by peers and other young people. This is attributed to the way that their peers view their gender identity. [6] [ failed verification ]

Perpetrators of sexual violence against transgender women are often known by the victim, in some instances they are romantic partners or family members. [7] A 2008 study found that, out of 80 perpetrators reported by transgender men and women, 81% of the perpetrators were male, 16% were female, and 2% were transgender. [8]

Physical violence

Physical violence in this context is used to describe any physical interaction between two or more individuals with the intent to cause bodily harm. Physical violence against the transgender community occurs at a rate similar to that of sexual violence. [9] A study of transgender individuals in Virginia, published in 2007, found that 40% of those interviewed had experienced an instance of physical violence. Around 69% of such attacks were, according to interviewees, due to their gender identity. The assaults occurred at a median age of 16 and were reported as early as 13 years old. Of those participants who reported at least one assault, at least 12% said they had experienced over 20 instances of physical violence in their lifetime. [5]

A study published in 2021 by the Williams Institute at UCLA School of Law found that transgender people in the United States are more likely to be violently attacked than cisgender people. The study found 86.1 attacks for every 1,000 transgender women and 23.7 attacks for every 1,000 cisgender women; it also found 107.5 attacks for every 1,000 transgender men and 19.8 attacks for every 1,000 cisgender men. [1]

Transgender women who are sex workers experience a disproportionately higher level of violence in the United States. [9] A study of transgender female sex workers conducted in Washington, D.C., found that approximately 65% of those interviewed reported an instance of physical assault, most often by their customers. [10] When asked why they believe that they are assaulted, the transgender sex workers answered that it was because their client misunderstood their anatomy as a transgender woman. One participant stated that if the male clients see "female" breasts and "male" genitals, they expect to get a "knife through [the] throat". [11]

Homicide

A 2017 analysis published by Alexis Dinno in the American Journal of Public Health attempted to estimate the transgender murder rate using homicide data from the Transgender Day of Remembrance and National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs, along with estimates of the overall transgender population in the United States. The study generated a number of potential estimates of the trans murder rate, ranging from around 7 times lower than the rate for cis people (assuming no undercounting of trans murders, and a trans prevalence of 0.6% of the population) up to 4 times higher (assuming 80% of trans murders are not accounted for, and a trans prevalence of 0.1%), ultimately concluding that the trans murder rate was "likely to be less than that of cisgender individuals". Dinno described this as a surprising result, given that transgender people are more likely to be financially vulnerable and report experiencing high rates of violence. However, Dinno found that young (aged 15 to 34) black and Latina trans women were "almost certainly" killed at a higher rate than cis women. [12]

Verbal Abuse

Verbal abuse is often directed against trans people with the intent to harm or humiliate the victim. In a recent study of crimes reported against transgender individuals, the researchers found that in many instances there were reports of verbal abuse directed towards the victims. The examples of verbal abuse reported during the crimes included homophobic and transphobic slurs and language. These attacks were mainly towards their gender and perceived identity. These examples of verbal abuse label the attacks as a hate crime. [6] [ failed verification ]

Violence against transgender women of color

Young transgender women of color experience violence and murder at a rate much higher than that of their white transgender counterparts. [6] A study conducted by the Gender Public Advocacy Coalition sought to examine the transgender murder rate from 1995 to 2005. The study focused on victims that were under the age of 30. Of the 51 victims that they analyzed, 91% of them were people of color. In a separate study conducted by Garofalo et al. (2006), the self-report survey revealed that 52% of the 51 transgender women of color had been raped. This study also found that MTF transgender youth of color are at risk of homelessness, substance abuse, and contracting HIV. [13]

Violence towards trans women of colour is often perpetrated by a romantic partner or a potential romantic partner. Cisgender men have been found to dehumanize transgender women of color based on stereotypes that they associate with the community, for example that transgender women of color perform sex work or suffer from substance abuse. These stereotypes has been perpetuated by both straight and gay cisgender men that are seeking a romantic relationship with a transgender woman of color. Transgender women of color also report that cisgender men often engage in the hyper-sexualization of the community, leading to trans women feeling objectified. [14]

Cisgender men that enter a romantic relationship with a transgender woman of color often conceal their romantic involvement; this includes refusal to be seen with a transgender woman in public, on social media, or in any way that might suggest a relationship. This has been attributed to the social stigma surrounding these women. [14]

These forms of rejection, concealment, and over sexualization may result in psychological trauma. Some transgender women of color have reported that they have never been in a healthy relationship. This deeply affects their feelings of self worth. [14]

Resources for transgender people experiencing violence

There are several resources available for members of the LGBTQ+ community when they are in times of crisis. One leading national organization for the LGBTQ+ youth is The Trevor Project, which assists with crisis intervention and suicide prevention. [15]

Another available resource is the Trans Lifeline, which is an organization that provides a hotline for direct emotional and financial support to transgender individuals. [16]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transphobia</span> Anti-transgender prejudice

Transphobia consists of negative attitudes, feelings, or actions towards transgender people or transness in general. Transphobia can include fear, aversion, hatred, violence or anger towards people who do not conform to social gender roles. Transphobia is a type of prejudice and discrimination, similar to racism, sexism, or ableism, and it is closely associated with homophobia. People of color who are transgender experience discrimination above and beyond that which can be explained as a simple combination of transphobia and racism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Violence against transgender people</span> Violence or victimization against transgender people

Violence against transgender people includes emotional, physical, sexual, or verbal violence targeted towards transgender people. The term has also been applied to hate speech directed at transgender people and at depictions of transgender people in the media that reinforce negative stereotypes about them. Trans and non-binary gender adolescents can experience bashing in the form of bullying and harassment. When compared to their cisgender peers, trans and non-binary gender youth are at increased risk for victimisation and substance abuse.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Attraction to transgender people</span> Romantic or sexual attraction to transgender people

Sexual attraction to transgender people has been the subject of scientific study and social commentary. Psychologists have researched sexual attraction toward trans women, trans men, cross dressers, non-binary people, and a combination of these. Publications in the field of transgender studies have investigated the attraction transgender individuals can feel for each other. The people who feel this attraction to transgender people name their attraction in different ways.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transgender rights in Iran</span>

Transgender rights in Iran are limited, with a narrow degree of official recognition of transgender identities by the government, but with trans individuals facing very high levels of discrimination, from the law, the state, and from wider society.

The gender binary is the classification of gender into two distinct forms of masculine and feminine, whether by social system, cultural belief, or both simultaneously. Most cultures use a gender binary, having two genders.

In the context of gender, passing is when someone is perceived as a gender they identify as or are attempting to be seen as, rather than their sex assigned at birth. Historically, this was common among women who served in occupations where women were prohibited, such as in combat roles in the military. For transgender people, it is when the person is perceived as cisgender instead of the sex they were assigned at birth. For example, someone who is a transgender man is passing if he is perceived as a cisgender man.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">LGBTQ people in prison</span> Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer people in prison

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer (LGBTQ) people face difficulties in prison such as increased vulnerability to sexual assault, other kinds of violence, and trouble accessing necessary medical care. While much of the available data on LGBTQ inmates comes from the United States, Amnesty International maintains records of known incidents internationally in which LGBTQ prisoners and those perceived to be lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender have suffered torture, ill-treatment and violence at the hands of fellow inmates as well as prison officials.

Various issues in medicine relate to lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer (LGBTQ) people. According to the US Gay and Lesbian Medical Association (GLMA), besides HIV/AIDS, issues related to LGBTQ health include breast and cervical cancer, hepatitis, mental health, substance use disorders, alcohol use, tobacco use, depression, access to care for transgender persons, issues surrounding marriage and family recognition, conversion therapy, refusal clause legislation, and laws that are intended to "immunize health care professionals from liability for discriminating against persons of whom they disapprove."

Violence against prostitutes include violent and harmful acts, both physical or psychological, against individuals engaging in prostitution. It occurs worldwide, with the victims of such acts of violence being predominantly women. In extreme cases, violent acts have led to their murder while in their workplace.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trans woman</span> Woman assigned male at birth

Transgender women are women who were assigned male at birth. Trans women have a female gender identity and may experience gender dysphoria. Gender dysphoria may be treated with gender-affirming care.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transmisogyny</span> Intersection of transphobia and misogyny, experienced by transfeminine individuals

Transmisogyny, otherwise known as trans-misogyny and transphobic misogyny, is the intersection of transphobia and misogyny as experienced by trans women and transfeminine people. The term was coined by Julia Serano in her 2007 book Whipping Girl to describe a particular form of oppression experienced by trans women. In a 2017 interview with The New York Times, Serano explores the roots of transmisogyny as a critique of feminine gender expressions which are "ridiculed in comparison to masculine interests and gender expression."

Transgender inequality is the unequal protection received by transgender people in work, school, and society in general. Transgender people regularly face transphobic harassment. Ultimately, one of the largest reasons that transgender people face inequality is due to a lack of public understanding of transgender people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transgender sex workers</span>

Transgender sex workers are transgender people who work in the sex industry or perform sexual services in exchange for money or other forms of payment. In general, sex workers appear to be at great risk for serious health problems related to their profession, such as physical and sexual assault, robbery, murder, physical and mental health problems, and drug and alcohol addiction. Though all sex workers are at risk for the problems listed, some studies suggest that sex workers who engage in street-based work have a higher risk for experiencing these issues. Transgender sex workers experience high degrees of discrimination both in and outside of the sex industry and face higher rates of contracting HIV and experiencing violence as a result of their work. In addition, a clear distinction needs to be made between consensual sex work and sex trafficking where there is a lack of control and personal autonomy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual assault of LGBT persons</span>

Sexual assault of LGBT people, also known as sexual and gender minorities (SGM), is a form of violence that occurs within the LGBT community. While sexual assault and other forms of interpersonal violence can occur in all forms of relationships, it is found that sexual minorities experience it at rates that are equal to or higher than their heterosexual counterparts. There is a lack of research on this specific problem for the LGBT population as a whole, but there does exist a substantial amount of research on college LGBT students who have experienced sexual assault and sexual harassment.

Discrimination against transgender men and transmasculine individuals is sometimes referred to as transandrophobia, anti-transmasculinity, or transmisandry.

LGBT trauma is the distress an individual experiences due to being a lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, queer person or from possessing another minoritized sexual or gender identity. This distress can be harmful to the individual and predispose them to trauma- and stressor-related disorders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transgender genocide</span> Characterization of discrimination against trans people

Transgender genocide or trans genocide is a term used by some scholars and activists to describe an elevated level of systematic discrimination and violence against transgender people.

Transgender asylum seekers are transgender people seeking refuge in another country due to stigmatization or persecution in their home countries. Because of their gender non-conformity, transgender asylum seekers face elevated risks to their mental and physical health compared to cisgender asylum seekers or those whose gender identity is the same as their sex assigned at birth, including higher risks of physical and sexual assault, torture, "conversion therapy" practices, and forced isolation. As a result, transgender people face challenges in the asylum process not experienced by others.

Cisnormativity or cissexual assumption is the assumption that everyone is, or ought to be, cisgender. The term can further refer to a wider range of presumptions about gender assignment, such as the presumption of a gender binary, or expectations of conformity to gender roles even when transgender identities are otherwise acknowledged. Cisnormativity is a form of cisgenderism, an ideology which promotes various normative ideas about gender, to the invalidation of individuals' own gender identities, analogous to heterosexism or ableism.


Domestic violence in transgender relationships is a pattern of violence or abuse that occurs within relationships involving one or more transgender people. A 2020 review of literature found that transgender people are more likely to experience intimate partner violence compared to cisgender people, with comparable rates of violence being experienced by trans men, trans women, and non-binary individuals.

References

  1. 1 2 "Transgender people over four times more likely than cisgender people to be victims of violent crime". Williams Institute. 23 March 2021. Retrieved 2021-09-28.
  2. ↑ transrespect.org/en/map/trans-murder-monitoring/?submap=tmm_relative_numbers Transrespect versus Transphobia, retrieved 2021-11-03
  3. ↑ Basile, Kathleen C.; Saltzman, Linda E. (2002). "Sexual Violence Surveillance: Uniform Definitions and Recommended Data Elements". PsycEXTRA Dataset. doi:10.1037/e721362007-001 . Retrieved 2020-11-13.
  4. ↑ James, S. E., Herman, J. L., Rankin, S., Keisling, M., Mottet, L., & Anafi, M. (2016). The Report of the 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey. Washington, DC: National Center for Transgender Equality.
  5. 1 2 Xavier, Jessica; Honnold, Julie A.; Bradford, Judith (2007). "The Health, Health Related Needs, and Lifecourse Experiences of Transgender Virginians". PsycEXTRA Dataset. doi:10.1037/e544442014-001 . Retrieved 2020-11-13.
  6. 1 2 3 Stotzer, Rebecca L. (September 2017). "Data Sources Hinder Our Understanding of Transgender Murders". American Journal of Public Health. 107 (9): 1362–1363. doi:10.2105/ajph.2017.303973. ISSN   0090-0036. PMC   5551619 . PMID   28787204.
  7. ↑ Cook-Daniels, Loree; munson, michael (5 May 2010). "Sexual Violence, Elder Abuse, and Sexuality of Transgender Adults, Age 50+: Results of Three Surveys". Journal of GLBT Family Studies. 6 (2): 142–177. doi:10.1080/15504281003705238. ISSN   1550-428X. S2CID   57665777.
  8. ↑ Cook-Daniels, Loree (2008). "Transgender Aging Special Topics: Sexuality, Sexual Violence, and Elder Abuse". PsycEXTRA Dataset. doi:10.1037/e497232008-001 . Retrieved 2020-11-13.
  9. 1 2 Stotzer, Rebecca L. (May 2009). "Violence against transgender people: A review of United States data". Aggression and Violent Behavior. 14 (3): 170–179. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2009.01.006. ISSN   1359-1789.
  10. ↑ Valera, Roberto J.; Sawyer, Robin G.; Schiraldi, Glenn R. (2001-01-01). "Perceived Health Needs of Inner-City Street Prostitutes: A Preliminary Study". American Journal of Health Behavior. 25 (1): 50–59. doi:10.5993/ajhb.25.1.6. ISSN   1087-3244. PMID   11289729.
  11. ↑ Nemoto, T.; Operario, D.; Keatley, J.; Villegas, D. (August 2004). "Social context of HIV risk behaviours among male-to-female transgenders of colour". AIDS Care. 16 (6): 724–735. doi:10.1080/09540120413331269567. ISSN   0954-0121. PMID   15370060. S2CID   35253652.
  12. ↑ Dinno, Alexis (2017). "Homicide Rates of Transgender Individuals in the United States: 2010–2014". American Journal of Public Health. 107 (9): 1441–1447. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2017.303878. PMC   5551594 . PMID   28727530.
  13. ↑ Garofalo, Robert; Deleon, Joanne; Osmer, Elizabeth; Doll, Mary; Harper, Gary W. (March 2006). "Overlooked, misunderstood and at-risk: Exploring the lives and HIV risk of ethnic minority male-to-female transgender youth". Journal of Adolescent Health. 38 (3): 230–236. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.03.023. ISSN   1054-139X. PMID   16488820.
  14. 1 2 3 Gamarel, Kristi E.; Jadwin-Cakmak, Laura; King, Wesley M.; Lacombe-Duncan, Ashley; Trammell, Racquelle; Reyes, Lilianna A.; Burks, Cierra; Rivera, Bré; Arnold, Emily; Harper, Gary W. (2020-11-30). "Stigma Experienced by Transgender Women of Color in Their Dating and Romantic Relationships: Implications for Gender-based Violence Prevention Programs". Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 37 (9–10): NP8161–NP8189. doi: 10.1177/0886260520976186 . PMC   8164638 . PMID   33256510. S2CID   227246930.
  15. ↑ Tomczyk, Patrick (2021-10-04). "Resourcefully queer: a review of The Educator's Guide to LGBT + Inclusion: A Practical Resource for K-12 Teachers, Administrators, and School Support Staff". Journal of LGBT Youth. 20 (3): 753–756. doi:10.1080/19361653.2021.1985683. ISSN   1936-1653. S2CID   258568827.
  16. ↑ Carter, Sarah P.; Cowan, Tovah; Snow, Annie; Cerel, Julie; Tucker, Raymond (1 February 2020). "Health Insurance and Mental Health Care Utilization Among Adults Who Identify as Transgender and Gender Diverse". Psychiatric Services. 71 (2): 151–157. doi: 10.1176/appi.ps.201900289 . ISSN   1075-2730. PMID   31658897. S2CID   204954319.
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