Violence against women in Uganda is an issue that negatively affects various aspects of women's lives. COVID-19 has worsened the current condition for women facing domestic violence. Perceived changing social standards and cultural norms indicate power dynamics which is a primary cause of violence carried out against women. Refugee women in Uganda are uniquely subjugated as they have the least access to gaining social or monetary capital. However, there has been recent legislation aimed at improving the quality of life for Ugandan women and refugee women in Uganda.
The United Nations has defined violence against women as "any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or mental harm to women." [1] Domestic violence, similar to intimate partner violence (IPV) and sex and gender based violence (SGBV), falls under the umbrella term "violence against women" (VAW). Each of these acts has been deemed a human rights violation and detrimental to public health. These issues are rooted in gender inequalities. [1] Such acts of violence can consist of sexual coercion (including rape), physical beatings, verbal and emotional abuse, and emotional manipulation. [2]
Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest reported rates of IPV according to a World Health Organization Report in 2013. [3] In Uganda, the prevalence of violence against women and, more specifically, domestic violence is significant. According to the UN Women Global Database on VAW, 50% of women aged 15–49 have or will experience IPV or SGBV at least once in their lifetime. In 2018, 30% of women aged 15–49 had experienced IPV or SGBV in the last 12 months. [4] In 2011, the Demographic and Health Survey recorded that nearly one out of three women in rural Uganda had been physically violated (punched, kicked, dragged, burnt, strangled, or threatened with weapons). These numbers place Uganda in the top percentile of countries with instances of VAW. [3]
The consequences of IPV, SGBV, and VAW, in general, are numerous. Women who have experienced acts of violence are subject to being ostracized by society. Women's political power is severely restricted due to strict customary and statutory laws (this is the case across Sub-Saharan Africa). Women who are victims of assault are often considered unworthy of either getting married or remaining in their marriages. Children born of rape and their mothers may be rejected by their families and society at-large. [5] Refugee women are especially at risk of violence in Uganda. Uganda shares a border with South Sudan; [6] due to the conflict in South Sudan, many individuals have had to flee to Uganda. Uganda has the highest refugee population in Africa; 1.45 million refugees make up 3% of Uganda's entire population. [7] Uganda's immigration and refugee policies are considered to be fairly open compared to other countries both in Sub-Saharan Africa as well as the West and the government has taken steps to allowing for greater freedoms and mobilization for refugees. However, due to insufficient resources (both economically and in infrastructure), female refugees are unable to effectively assimilate into Ugandan society. In a study of South Sudanese female refugees, 100% ages 18 and older reported having experienced SGBV at least once. [7]
Due to the novel COVID-19, women in Uganda are often confined to their homes where they are more exposed to violence perpetuated against them by their partners, with no social networks to rely on. 46% of Ugandan women reported that they had experienced physical violence as a result of the country-wide lockdown. In addition, the lockdown prevented women from leaving their homes to go to their jobs, run their businesses, attend social gatherings, etc. As a result, women were forced to spend more time in their homes with their abusers. [8]
There have been steps made towards improving conditions for women in Uganda. First, the Succession Bill was updated to allow women to own land and property as well as keep claims to their inheritances. This allows women to become more financially dependent and able to leave abusive households. Second, the Employment Bill was passed which required employers to implement workplace policies against abuse, harassment, and violence. This legislation also protects unpaid domestic workers and refugees searching for employment from being exploited. [9]
It is also necessary for public perception and tolerance of VAW to change. Violence against women in Uganda often occurs as a means to reinforcing gender norms and expectations. For example, women who fail to properly execute household tasks are often subject to abuse from their partners and other male family members. In response, women are advised to remain non-confrontational about this treatment. [10] There is a strong correlation between socioeconomic status and domestic violence; in other words, women who possess lower wealth and/or are less educated are more likely to be victims of domestic violence. [11] An especially important social factor is the bride-price. Bride-prices are symbolic of a woman's worth and men who do not pay high bride-prices are considered less able to sustain a marital relationship. The inherent outcome of placing a price on women is the commodification of their bodies, leading to violence. [12] To that end, modernization (changing economic and social conditions) combined with increasing women's participation in the labor force creates uncertainty and threatens existing gender structures. The transition from traditional patriarchy to modern society leads to violence. [13] VAW and, more specifically, sexual violence, further harms women's reproductive health. Women who are victims of sexual coercion may be unable to make conscious and deliberate use of contraceptives. Uganda has an exceptionally low contraceptive rate at 23% and induced abortions make up 15-30% of maternal deaths. [14] Thus, broad perceptions of women's role in society are the root cause of VAW.
Human rights in Uganda have trended for the past decades towards increasing harassment of the opposition, cracking down on NGOs which work on election and term limits, corruption, land rights, environmental issues, womens, children and gay rights. In 2012, the Relief Web sponsored Humanitarian Profile – 2012 said Uganda made considerable developments Since at least 2013 the Freedom in the World report by Freedom House has identified Uganda as a country considered to be "Not Free".There are several areas of concern when it comes to human rights in Uganda, and the "Not Free" classification is due to both low political rights and civil liberties rankings.
Violence against women (VAW), also known as gender-based violence and sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV), are violent acts primarily or exclusively committed by men or boys against women or girls. Such violence is often considered a form of hate crime, committed against women or girls specifically because they are female, and can take many forms.
The conflict tactics scale (CTS), created by Murray A. Straus in 1979, is used in the research of family violence." There are two versions of the CTS; the CTS2 and the CTSPC. As of 2005, the CTS has been used in about 600 peer reviewed scientific or scholarly papers, including longitudinal birth-cohort studies. National surveys conducted in the USA include two National Family Violence Surveys, the National Violence Against Women Survey (1998), which, according to Straus, used a "feminist version" of the CTS in order to minimize data on female perpetration of intimate partner violence (IPV), and the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being. A major international survey to use the CTS was the 2006 International Dating Violence Study, which investigated IPV amongst 13,601 college students across thirty-two different countries.
Gender is correlated with the prevalence of certain mental disorders, including depression, anxiety and somatic complaints. For example, women are more likely to be diagnosed with major depression, while men are more likely to be diagnosed with substance abuse and antisocial personality disorder. There are no marked gender differences in the diagnosis rates of disorders like schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Men are at risk to suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to past violent experiences such as accidents, wars and witnessing death, and women are diagnosed with PTSD at higher rates due to experiences with sexual assault, rape and child sexual abuse. Nonbinary or genderqueer identification describes people who do not identify as either male or female. People who identify as nonbinary or gender queer show increased risk for depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder. People who identify as transgender demonstrate increased risk for depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder.
Intimate partner violence (IPV) is domestic violence by a current or former spouse or partner in an intimate relationship against the other spouse or partner. IPV can take a number of forms, including physical, verbal, emotional, economic and sexual abuse. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines IPV as "any behavior within an intimate relationship that causes physical, psychological or sexual harm to those in the relationship, including acts of physical aggression, sexual coercion, psychological abuse and controlling behaviors." IPV is sometimes referred to simply as battery, or as spouse or partner abuse.
Women in Uganda have substantial economic and social responsibilities throughout Uganda's many traditional societies. Ugandan women come from a range of economic and educational backgrounds. Despite economic and social progress throughout the country, domestic violence and sexual assault remain prevalent issues in Uganda. Illiteracy is directly correlated to increased level of domestic violence. This is mainly because household members can not make proper decisions that directly affect their future plans. Government reports suggest rising levels of domestic violence toward women that are directly attributable to poverty.
Surveys of victims of crime have been undertaken in many cities and countries, using a common methodology to aid comparability, and have generally included questions on sexual violence. The United Nations has conducted extensive surveys to determine the level of sexual violence in different societies. According to these studies, the percentage of women reporting having been a victim of sexual assault ranges from less than 2% in places such as La Paz, Bolivia (1.4%), Gaborone, Botswana (0.8%), Beijing, China (1.6%), and Manila, Philippines (0.3%), to 5% or more in Istanbul, Turkey (6.0%), Buenos Aires, Argentina (5.8%), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (8.0%), and Bogota, Colombia (5.0%).
As sexual violence affects all parts of society, the responses that arise to combat it are comprehensive, taking place on the individual, administrative, legal, and social levels.
Domestic violence is violence or other abuse that occurs in a domestic setting, such as in a marriage or cohabitation. Domestic violence is often used as a synonym for intimate partner violence, which is committed by one of the people in an intimate relationship against the other person, and can take place in relationships or between former spouses or partners. In its broadest sense, domestic violence also involves violence against children, parents, or the elderly. It can assume multiple forms, including physical, verbal, emotional, economic, religious, reproductive, financial abuse, or sexual abuse. It can range from subtle, coercive forms to marital rape and other violent physical abuse, such as choking, beating, female genital mutilation, and acid throwing that may result in disfigurement or death, and includes the use of technology to harass, control, monitor, stalk or hack. Domestic murder includes stoning, bride burning, honor killing, and dowry death, which sometimes involves non-cohabitating family members. In 2015, the United Kingdom's Home Office widened the definition of domestic violence to include coercive control.
Frederick Wabwire-Mangen is a Ugandan physician, public health specialist and medical researcher. Currently he is Professor of Epidemiology and Head of Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics at Makerere University School of Public Health. Wabwire-Mangen also serves as the Chairman of Council of Kampala International University and a founding member of Accordia Global Health Foundation’s Academic Alliance
David M. Serwadda is a Ugandan physician, medical researcher, academic, public health specialist and medical administrator. Currently he is a Professor of Public Health at Makerere University School of Public Health, one of the schools of Makerere University College of Health Sciences, a semi-autonomous constituent college of Makerere University, the oldest university in Uganda. Serwadda is also a founding member of Accordia Global Health Foundation's Academic Alliance.
Refugee women face gender-specific challenges in navigating daily life at every stage of their migration experience. Common challenges for all refugee women, regardless of other demographic data, are access to healthcare and physical abuse and instances of discrimination, sexual violence, and human trafficking are the most common ones. But even if women don't become victims of such actions, they often face abuse and disregard for their specific needs and experiences, which leads to complex consequences including demoralization, stigmatization, and mental and physical health decay. The lack of access to appropriate resources from international humanitarian aid organizations is compounded by the prevailing gender assumptions around the world, though recent shifts in gender mainstreaming are aiming to combat these commonalities.
Pregnancy when coupled with domestic violence is a form of intimate partner violence (IPV) where health risks may be amplified. Abuse during pregnancy, whether physical, verbal or emotional, produces many adverse physical and psychological effects for both the mother and fetus. Domestic violence during pregnancy is categorized as abusive behavior towards a pregnant woman, where the pattern of abuse can often change in terms of severity and frequency of violence. Abuse may be a long-standing problem in a relationship that continues after a woman becomes pregnant or it may commence in pregnancy. Although female-to-male partner violence occurs in these settings, the overwhelming form of domestic violence is perpetrated by men against women. Pregnancy provides a unique opportunity for healthcare workers to screen women for domestic violence though a recent review found that the best way in which to do this is unclear. Reducing domestic violence in pregnancy should improve outcomes for mothers and babies though more good quality studies are needed to work out effective ways of screening pregnant women.
Domestic violence against men is violence or other physical abuse towards men in a domestic setting, such as in marriage or cohabitation. As with domestic violence against women, violence against men may constitute a crime, but laws vary between jurisdictions. Intimate partner violence (IPV) against men is generally less recognized by society than intimate partner violence against women, which can act as a further block to men reporting their situation.
Domestic violence is prominent in Nigeria as in other parts of Africa. There is a deep cultural belief in Nigeria that it is socially acceptable to hit a woman as a disciplinary measure. Cases of Domestic violence are on the high and show no signs of reduction in Nigeria, regardless of age, tribe, religion, or even social status. The CLEEN Foundation reports 1 in every 3 respondents identified themselves as a victim of domestic violence. The survey also found a nationwide increase in domestic violence in the past 3 years from 21% in 2011 to 30% in 2013. A CLEEN Foundation's 2012 National Crime and Safety Survey demonstrated that 31% of the national sample confessed to being victims of domestic violence.
Domestic violence in Kenya constitutes any harmful behavior against a family member or partner, including rape, assault, physical abuse, and forced prostitution. Domestic violence in Kenya reflects worldwide statistics in that women are the overwhelming majority of victims. Over 40% of married women in Kenya have reported being victims of either domestic violence or sexual abuse. Worldwide, over 30% of "ever-partnered women" aged 15 and older have experienced physical or sexual partner violence. The distinct factors and causes of this high percentage have often not been studied due to lack of data.
Under apartheid in South Africa, Apartheid laws and social norms assigned black women a lower status, leading to what is now known as the “triple oppression” of race, class, and gender.
Sexual assault of LGBT people, also known as sexual and gender minorities (SGM), is a form of violence that occurs within the LGBT community. While sexual assault and other forms of interpersonal violence can occur in all forms of relationships, it is found that sexual minorities experience it at rates that are equal to or higher than their heterosexual counterparts. There is a lack of research on this specific problem for the LGBT population as a whole, but there does exist a substantial amount of research on college LGBT students who have experienced sexual assault and sexual harassment.
Fred Nalugoda is a public health researcher studying HIV/AIDS in rural Uganda for over 20 years, mainly through surveillance and field work. He currently serves as the Program Director of a research station in Kalisizo in Uganda as part of his continued work at the Rakai Health Sciences Program (RHSP).
Paige L. Sweet is a sociologist at the University of Michigan, working in the areas of gender and sexuality, knowledge, gender-based violence. Sweet has received attention for her work on gaslighting in relationships and the workplace. She is the author of The Politics of Surviving: How Women Navigate Domestic Violence and Its Aftermath.