185th Armor Regiment

Last updated

185th Armor Regiment
185thArmorReg.png
Coat of arms
Active1885–2016
CountryFlag of the United States.svg  United States
Branch California Army National Guard
Type Armor
Garrison/HQModesto, California (HQ)
Motto(s)Fulmen Jacio (I Hurl The Thunderbolt) [1]
Engagements World War I
World War II
Korean War
Iraq Campaign
Decorations Presidential Unit Citation [2]
Commanders
Current CommanderLTC Trevor M. Phillips
Insignia
Distinctive unit insignia File185ar dui.png

The 185th Armor Regiment was an armor regiment of the United States Army consisting of soldiers from the California Army National Guard.

Contents

History

The 185th Armor Regiment was created on 1 July 1959 by combining several existing units. The 185th Armor Regiment shares the lineage of some of those existing units, which can be traced back to 1885 with the 7th Infantry Regiment (California).

1885 – 1917 7th Infantry (California)

On 22 July 1885, the 7th Infantry Battalion was constituted in the California National Guard by consolidating existing companies in Los Angeles and San Diego. On 5 May 1888, the 7th Infantry Battalion was expanded, reorganized, and redesignated as the 7th Infantry Regiment (California). On 7 November 1895 the 7th Infantry Regiment (California) was consolidated with the 9th Infantry Regiment (California), which had been organized on 8 February 1890 in the California National Guard, and the consolidated unit was designated as the 7th Infantry Regiment (California).

Spanish American War

On 9 May 1898, the 7th Infantry Regiment (California) was mustered into federal service at the Presidio of San Francisco, California, as the 7th California Volunteer Infantry. On 2 December 1898, the regiment mustered out of federal service at Los Angeles.

World War I

On 29 June 1916, the 7th Infantry Regiment (California) was mustered into federal service at Sacramento. On 11 November 1916, the regiment was mustered out of federal service at Los Angeles. On 5 August 1917, the 7th Infantry Regiment (California) was drafted into federal service. From 25 September 1917 through 1 November 1917, the 7th Infantry Regiment (California) was consolidated with the 2nd Battalion, Companies L and M, and the Sanitary Detachment of the 2nd Infantry Regiment (California). The consolidated unit was reorganized and redesignated as the 160th Infantry and assigned to the 40th Division.

1919 – 49 precursor elements

The 160th Infantry's performance during World War 1 is discussed here. On 7 May 1919, the 160th Infantry demobilized at Camp Kearny, California.

1919–41

From 23 August 1921 through 6 October 1921, the former southern California elements were reconstituted and reorganized as the 160th Infantry and assigned to the 40th Division in the California National Guard, with headquarters at Los Angeles. On 31 January 1922, the 160th Infantry was federally recognized.

On 1 April 1929, the 2nd Battalion, 160th Infantry was withdrawn, reorganized, and redesignated as the 2nd Battalion, 185th Infantry, an element of the 40th Division (later redesignated as the 40th Infantry Division). Concurrently, the 160th Infantry reorganized with a new 2nd Battalion.

From March through April 1930, the 2nd Battalion, 185th Infantry expanded and reorganized as the 2nd and 3rd Battalions, 185th Infantry.

World War II

On 3 March 1941, the 160th Infantry and 185th Infantry were inducted into federal service at home stations, and more information regarding their service during the war is available here for the 160th Infantry and here for the 185th Infantry. On 7 April 1946, the 160th Infantry and 185th Infantry were inactivated at Camp Stoneman, California.

1946–50

On 5 August 1946, the 185th Infantry expanded and reorganized, with the 2nd and 3rd Battalions redesignated as the 223rd and 224th Infantry and assigned to the 40th Infantry Division.

On 14 October 1946, the 160th Infantry was reorganized and federally recognized with headquarters at Los Angeles.

On 15 October 1946, the 223rd Infantry and 224th Infantry were organized and federally recognized with headquarters at Pasadena and Ontario, respectively.

Korean War

On 1 September 1950, the 160th Infantry, 223d Infantry, and 224th Infantry were ordered into active federal service at home stations. On 2 September 1950, the 160th Infantry [NGUS], 223d Infantry [NGUS], and 224th Infantry [NGUS] were organized and federally recognized with headquarters at Los Angeles, Pasadena and Ontario, respectively. The three regiments consisted of the three maneuver units of the 40th Infantry Division, which saw significant action in the Korean War in 1952. More information regarding their service during the war is available here.

1954–1959

On 30 June 1954, the three regiments were released from active federal service and reverted to state control. Federal recognition of 223rd Infantry (NGUS), 224th Infantry (NGUS) and 160th Infantry (NGUS) was concurrently withdrawn.

On 1 July 1954, the units underwent the changes described below that are germane to the lineage of the 185th Armor Regiment. For more information regarding the lineage of the other elements, refer to their respective lineage.

223rd Infantry Regiment. The 2nd battalion, 223rd Infantry Regiment was withdrawn and consolidated with the 3rd Battalion, 111th Armored Cavalry (organized and federally recognized 26 January 1951 with headquarters at Van Nuys). The consolidated unit reorganized and redesignated as the 139th Tank Battalion, an element of the 40th Armored Division, with headquarters at Burbank.
224th Infantry Regiment. The 2nd battalion, 224th Infantry Regiment, was withdrawn, reorganized, and redesignated as the 133d Tank Battalion, an element of the 40th Armored Division, with headquarters at Riverside.
160th Infantry Regiment. The 3rd battalion, 160th Infantry Regiment was withdrawn, reorganized, and redesignated as the 111th Reconnaissance Battalion, an element of the 40th Armored Division, with headquarters at Inglewood.

On 1 July 1959, the 185th Armor Regiment was created as an element of the 40th Armored Division by consolidating the following units: 133rd and 139th Tank Battalions, 111th Reconnaissance Battalion, and 140th and 134th Tank Battalions. The lineage of the 140th and 134th Tank Battalions is described below.

140th Tank Battalion. On 3 December 1941, Company A, 640th Tank Destroyer Battalion was constituted in the Army of the United States. On 19 December 1941, the company was activated at Camp San Luis Obispo, California, with personnel from the 143d Field Artillery, California National Guard. On 13 January 1946, the company was inactivated at Camp Anza, California. On 15 March 1949, the company was reorganized and federally recognized in the California Army National Guard as the 140th Heavy Tank Battalion with headquarters at Barstow and assigned to the 40th Infantry Division (later redesignated as the 40th Armored Division). On 1 September 1950, the battalion was ordered into active federal service at home stations. On 2 September 1952, the battalion was reorganized and federally recognized as the 140th Tank Battalion with headquarters at Barstow. On 14 April 1953, the headquarters was relocated to Pasadena. On 30 June 1954, the battalion was released from active federal service and reverted to state control; concurrently, federal recognition was withdrawn.
134th Tank Battalion. On 13 July 1946, the 109th Cavalry Reconnaissance Squadron, Mechanized was constituted in the California National Guard. On 18 September 1947, the squadron was organized and federally recognized as the 109th Mechanized Cavalry Reconnaissance Squadron with headquarters at Imperial. On 15 September 1949, the squadron was reorganized and redesignated as the 1st Battalion, 111th Armored Cavalry. On 15 December 1950, the headquarters was relocated to El Centro. On 1 July 1954, the battalion was reorganized and redesignated as the 134th Tank Battalion and assigned to the 40th Armored Division.

1959–present

1959–2000

On 1 May 1962, the 6th and 7th Medium Tank Battalions were added to the regiment through a reorganization.

On 1 March 1963, the 3rd Medium Tank Battalion was added and the 7th Medium Tank Battalion was removed from the regiment through a reorganization.

On 15 March 1964, the 3rd Reconnaissance Squadron was removed from the regiment through a reorganization.

On 29 January 1968, the regiment was reorganized to include three battalions (1st, 2nd and 3rd) of the 185th Armor Regiment, an element of the 40th Armored Brigade.

On 13 January 1974, the regiment and its three battalions were assigned as an element of the 40th Infantry Division.

On 1 May 1992, the regiment was ordered into active federal service at home stations for the 1992 Los Angeles riots and released on 9 May 1992 whereupon it went on State Active Duty for the remainder of the urban unrest.

On 1 October 2001, Charlie Company, 1st Battalion, 185th Infantry was ordered to active federal service in support of Operation Nobel Eagle, and deployed to Fort Huachucca Arizona to guard the Military Intelligence Training Center (which was also the alternate Pentagon following the attacks on 11 September 2001).

In 2002, 1st Battalion, 185th Armor was detached from the 40th Infantry Division and assigned to the 81st Armor Brigade (Washington National Guard).

21st century

2004–05 Iraq

In early 2004, the 1st Battalion was mobilized for a deployment in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom 01-02 as part of the 81st Heavy Brigade Combat Team. The battalion was responsible for security for three bases south of Baghdad and corresponding route security along main supply routes between Baghdad and Kuwait. The battalion was reorganized and retrained for this deployment which included all but one of the companies (Bravo) deploying as provisional infantry units. The battalion returned to California in March 2005 where it was restructured into a Combined Arms Battalion shortly thereafter. [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] First battalion's Bravo Company, was equipped with M1 Abrams. [8]

The first battalion's Bravo Company (along with other attached battalion elements to specified active duty units) received a Valorous Unit Award for actions as part of the 1st Brigade, 25th Infantry Division in early 2005 as part of operations in support of Iraq's first elections after the fall of Saddam Hussein. [9]

2005–06 Iraq

In September 2005, the 2nd Battalion's Bravo Company was mobilized for a deployment in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. In Iraq, Bravo Company was responsible for the security of more than 2,200 detainees at Baghdad Central Prison (formerly known as Abu Ghraib) until June 2006 when the camp was closed. During their time at the prison, Bravo Company Soldiers foiled several escape attempts. Upon the closure of the prison, it was then the responsibility of the unit to transport approximately 5,000 detainees to various holding facilities throughout Iraq. Following that mission, Bravo Company Soldiers were responsible for convoy security and operational control of a forward operating base where the company's convoy team operated without any coalition or civilian casualties for more than 10,000 miles. In December 2006, Bravo Company demobilized at Fort Lewis, Washington before returning to San Diego, California. [10] [11] [12]

The second battalion's Bravo Company received one Iraq Campaign streamer with the following inscription: NATIONAL RESOLUTION. Bravo Company also received a Meritorious Unit Commendation as part of the 43rd Military Police Brigade, Rhode Island Army National Guard. [13]

On 1 September 2007, the 2nd Battalion was reorganized and eliminated from the regiment. [14]

2008–09 Iraq

In August 2008, the first battalion was mobilized for a deployment in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom 08-09 as part of the 81st Heavy Brigade Combat Team. [7] [15] As part of the mobilization, Alpha Company was attached to the first battalion, 184th Infantry Regiment to provide the only mechanized infantry company for their mobilization for Operation Joint Guardian in Kosovo. In turn, the first battalion was augmented with Alpha and Bravo companies from the first battalion, 184th Infantry Regiment. After mobilization, the first battalion completed training in Fort McCoy, Wisconsin, and arrived in Iraq in October 2008.

While in Iraq, the first battalion's Echo Company and Alpha and Bravo companies from the first battalion, 184th Infantry Regiment were attached to the 30th Support Battalion.

The remainder of the first battalion performed a security force mission throughout Multi-National Division-North at COB Speicher near Tikrit, Iraq. With the battalion's headquarters and headquarters company providing command and control, the three companies provided convoy security support to corps assets, which included coalition force operational moves, Kellogg, Brown and Root, and third country national logistical convoys. [16] The first battalion executed more than 1,500 missions, totaling more than 1,000,000 mission miles, throughout MND-N and Multi-National Corps-Iraq without incident. In August 2009, the first battalion returned to California. [17]

The first battalion's Bravo, Charlie and Delta Companies received two Iraq Campaign streamers with the following inscriptions: IRAQI SURGE and IRAQI SOVEREIGNTY and a Meritorious Unit Commendation. [18]

The first battalion's Echo Company received two Iraq Campaign streamers with the following inscriptions: IRAQI SURGE and IRAQI SOVEREIGNTY and a Meritorious Unit Commendation. [19]

2008–09 Kosovo
Soldiers from the 185th Armor conduct Mechanized Infantry Training at Camp Shelby in October 2008. 185ar kosovo1.jpg
Soldiers from the 185th Armor conduct Mechanized Infantry Training at Camp Shelby in October 2008.

In October 2008, the first battalion's Alpha Company was mobilized under the command of the 184th Infantry Regiment for a deployment to Kosovo as part of the 40th Infantry Division as the only mechanized infantry company. The company mobilized ahead of other units and conducted most of its training separate from its parent unit, because of the need for specialized gunnery training on the company's Bradley vehicles. This training was conducted at Fort Irwin in November and Camp Shelby in December. [20] Once the gunnery training was completed, the company traveled to Camp Atterbury to join its parent unit to complete the required training. The company traveled to JMRC Hohenfels for additional training, before arriving in Kosovo in February. The company was utilized as one of three maneuver companies tasked with providing a safe and secure environment and ensuring freedom of movement in accordance with United Nations Resolution 1244. While accomplishing this mission, the company also was required to both maintain their Bradley Fighting Vehicles as well as their proficiency with using them. In November 2009, the company departed Kosovo to conduct demobilization operations at Fort Lewis near Seattle, Washington and returned to California a few weeks later. While the battalion did not receive campaign participation credit, those Soldiers who served with Alpha company during this deployment received the Kosovo Campaign Medal and the NATO Non-Article 5 Medal.

Redesignation

On 2 February 2016, the 1st Battalion of the 185th Armor Regiment was redesignated as 1st Battalion of the 185th Infantry Regiment, due to the transition of the 81st Armored Brigade Combat Team to a Stryker brigade. [21] [22] This unit inherits the lineage of the 185th Armor and is not connected with the previous 185th Infantry. [23]

Subordinate units

The first and second battalions remain as active "Combined Arms Battalions" which each typically consist of two armor companies, two infantry companies, and a combat engineer company.

First Battalion

The first battalion had served as one of two armor battalions of the 81st Heavy Brigade Combat Team in the Washington Army National Guard.

Second Battalion

The second battalion was stationed in Southern California as part of the California Army National Guard.

Notable members

See also

Related Research Articles

66th Armor Regiment Military unit

The 66th Armor Regiment is the oldest armored unit in the United States Army, tracing its lineage to the 301st Tank Battalion which served with distinction soon after it was formed in the First World War; the 301st trained at Camp Meade, Maryland, where then Cpt. Dwight D. Eisenhower was an instructor. It has often been rumored that the 301st, the parent unit of the 66th, was first commanded by Col. George S. Patton, but this appears not to have been the case; while Patton was the first officer assigned to the Tank Corps, and while the 301st Tank Battalion was the first unit formed, Patton went nearly immediately to France to train Americans attached to Allied commands. The 301st was the only American heavy tank battalion to have seen action in the war. After the war, the 301st transitioned in the Regular Army to become the 66th Infantry Regiment by way of the 16th Tank Battalion.

37th Infantry Brigade Combat Team (United States) Military unit

The 37th Infantry Brigade Combat Team (Buckeye) is an infantry brigade combat team of the United States Army National Guard with the brigade headquarters, cavalry squadron, infantry battalion, field artillery battalion, engineer battalion, and support battalion stationed in Ohio, infantry battalion and military intelligence company stationed in Michigan, and a third infantry battalion stationed in South Carolina. The 37th IBCT traces its lineage and honors back to the 37th Infantry Division.

68th Armor Regiment Military unit

The 68th Armor Regiment is an armored regiment of the United States Army. It was first activated in 1933 in the Regular Army as the 68th Infantry Regiment.

48th Infantry Brigade Combat Team (United States) Military unit

The 48th Infantry Brigade Combat Team is a modular infantry brigade of the Georgia Army National Guard. One of the oldest units in U.S. Army history, the lineage of the 48th Infantry Brigade can be traced back to 1825. It is one of few units in the US military that also saw service as a unit of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. Today, the 48th IBCT is part of the U.S. Army's "Associated Units" program where it's aligned under the 3rd Infantry Division, a combined arms combat maneuver unit of the Regular Army.

The 64th Armor Regiment is an armor regiment of the United States Army, organized under the United States Army Regimental System. It is descended from the 758th Tank Battalion (Light) that served in the Italian campaign during World War II. Redesignated as the 64th Tank Battalion, it was assigned to the 3rd Infantry Division during the Korean War and it spent most of the Cold War stationed in West Germany before elements were transferred to Ft. Stewart, Georgia in the late 1990s. The regiment participated in Desert Shield, Desert Storm, Desert Fox, Desert Spring, Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom.

185th Infantry Regiment (United States) Military unit

The 185th Infantry Regiment is a unit of the United States Army made up of soldiers from the California Army National Guard, represented by the 1st Battalion, part of the 81st Stryker Brigade Combat Team.

18th Cavalry Regiment Military unit

The 18th Cavalry Regiment is a parent cavalry regiment of the United States Army.

40th Armored Division (United States) Military unit

The 40th Armored Division was a division of the United States Army National Guard from July 1954 until 1967.

116th Cavalry Brigade Combat Team Military unit

The 116th Cavalry Brigade Combat Team is the largest formation of the Idaho Army National Guard. It is headquartered at Gowen Field, Boise, Idaho. It has been reorganized into an Armored Brigade Combat Team (ABCT) but remains the only unit to be designated a "Cavalry Brigade Combat Team" by special appointment of the US Army. The 116th Cavalry Brigade Combat Team has units located throughout Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Nevada. It was reorganized into a heavy armor brigade in 1989. Often referred to as the Snake River Brigade and formerly known as the 116th Armored Cavalry Regiment, the unit includes about 3,000 citizen-soldiers from Idaho.

The 67th Armored Regiment is an armored regiment in the United States Army. The regiment was first formed in 1929 in the Regular Army as the 2nd Tank Regiment (Heavy) and redesignated as the 67th Infantry Regiment in 1932. It first became the 67th Armor in 1940. The regiment participated in World War I, World War II, Desert Storm/Desert Shield, Operation Iraqi Freedom, Operation Enduring Freedom, Operation Spartan Shield, Operation Inherent Resolve, Operation Resolute Support, and Operation Freedom's Sentinel.

103rd Armor Regiment Military unit

The 103rd Armor Regiment is an armored regiment in the Pennsylvania National Guard first formed in 1941. Its legacy unit, 3rd Battalion, 103rd Armor, is a subordinate command of the 55th Heavy Brigade Combat Team, 28th Infantry Division.

160th Infantry Regiment (United States) Military unit

The 160th Infantry Regiment is an infantry regiment of the United States Army. The 1st Battalion, 160th Infantry is a light infantry component of the 79th Infantry Brigade Combat Team (IBCT).

107th Cavalry Regiment Military unit

The 107th Cavalry Regiment, Ohio Army National Guard, is a parent regiment under the U.S. Army Regimental System, with headquarters at Hamilton, Ohio. It currently consists of the 2nd Squadron, 107th Cavalry Regiment, part of the 37th Infantry Brigade Combat Team (BUCKEYE), Ohio National Guard located throughout southwest Ohio.

133rd Field Artillery Regiment (United States) Military unit

The 133rd Field Artillery Regiment is a parent field artillery regiment of the United States Army National Guard. It is currently represented in the Texas Army National Guard by the 1st, 3rd, and 4th Battalions.

160th Field Artillery Regiment (United States) Military unit

The 1st Battalion, 160th Field Artillery Regiment is headquartered in Chandler, Oklahoma. It is a part of the 45th Infantry Brigade Combat Team, Oklahoma Army National Guard.

45th Field Artillery Brigade Military unit

The 45th Fires Brigade is a modular field artillery brigade of the United States Army headquartered in Mustang, Oklahoma. It is a part of the Oklahoma Army National Guard.

153rd Cavalry Regiment Military unit

First Squadron, 153rd Cavalry Regiment "Darkhorse" is an element of the Florida Army National Guard, headquartered in Panama City, Florida with units throughout the Panhandle. It was formerly 3rd Battalion, 124th Infantry and officially converted to cavalry on 1 September 2007 when the 53rd Infantry Brigade converted from a "separate brigade" to the brigade combat team structure.

117th Military Police Battalion Military unit

The 117th Military Police Battalion Combat Support (CS), is a military police battalion of the Tennessee Army National Guard (TNARNG) and the United States Army Military Police Corps with its headquarters located in Athens, Tennessee. When not mobilized or deployed, the 117th MP BN is task organized as a subordinate battalion of the Tennessee Army National Guard’s 194th Engineer Brigade located in Jackson, Tennessee.

303rd Cavalry Regiment (United States) Military unit

The 303rd Cavalry Regiment is a United States cavalry regiment, currently represented in the Washington Army National Guard by the 1st Squadron, 303rd Cavalry, headquartered at Vancouver, Washington, part of the 96th Troop Command. It incorporates the lineage of the 303rd Cavalry, 303rd Armor, and 803rd Armor Regiments of the Washington Army National Guard.

94th Cavalry Regiment (United States) Military unit

The 94th Cavalry Regiment is a United States Army cavalry regiment, represented in the Minnesota Army National Guard by 1st Squadron, 94th Cavalry, part of the 1st Armored Brigade Combat Team, 34th Infantry Division, stationed at Duluth.

References

Citations

  1. ↑ "185 Armor Regiment". Institute of Heraldry . Office of the Administrative Assistant to the Secretary of the Army. Archived from the original on 28 July 2013. Retrieved 25 March 2012.
  2. ↑ "1–185 Lineage & Honors". Washington Army National Guard . Washington Military Department. 2007. Archived from the original on 13 May 2014. Retrieved 27 March 2012.
  3. ↑ "Army Delays Local Guard Unit's Deployment to Iraq". North County Times. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
  4. ↑ "National Guard Readies for Iraq". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
  5. ↑ "Guard Unit Keeps Peace By Helping Iraqis Rebuild". Stars and Stripes. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
  6. ↑ "2004 Person of the Year: 1–185th Armor tops 2004". Victorville Daily Press. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
  7. 1 2 Bernton, Hal (28 April 2004). "State's 81st Brigade to focus on security at Iraq, Kuwait bases". The Seattle Times. Retrieved 6 December 2012.
  8. ↑ John J. McGrath (15 August 2014). Between The Rivers: Combat Action In Iraq, 2003–2005 [Illustrated Edition]. Tannenberg Publishing. p. 129. ISBN   978-1-78289-492-6.
  9. ↑ "Permanent Orders 241-01" (PDF). U.S. Army Human Resources Command. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 October 2012. Retrieved 10 December 2012.
  10. ↑ "Unit Returns from Iraq Just in Time for Christmas". Union Tribune. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
  11. ↑ "2–185th Armor Returns from Iraq" (PDF). California National Guard. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 September 2012. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
  12. ↑ "Guard company reunites at awards ceremony". Union Tribune. Retrieved 6 December 2012.
  13. ↑ "Permanent Orders 241-14" (PDF). U.S. Army Human Resources Command. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 October 2012. Retrieved 10 December 2012.
  14. ↑ "185th Armor Regiment Lineage and Honors". California Military Department. Archived from the original on 6 February 2011. Retrieved 23 December 2010.
  15. ↑ "California National Guard To Conduct Largest Unit Deployment Since Korean War". Salem-News.com. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
  16. ↑ "The Other Working Dogs of Iraq". America's North Shore Journal. Archived from the original on 16 February 2011. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
  17. ↑ "81st Heavy Brigade Combat Team heads home". United States National Guard. Archived from the original on 12 December 2012. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
  18. ↑ "Permanent Orders 338-09" (PDF). U.S. Army Human Resources Command. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 October 2012. Retrieved 10 December 2012.
  19. ↑ "Permanent Orders 217-20" (PDF). U.S. Army Human Resources Command. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 October 2012. Retrieved 10 December 2012.
  20. ↑ "California Guardsmen Train For Kosovo Deployment". American Forces Press Service. Archived from the original on 2 March 2012. Retrieved 23 December 2010.
  21. ↑ "California National Guard shared Army Times's post". California National Guard. Facebook. 7 December 2016. Our former 185th Armor and now 185th Infantry are affected and connected to the 81st.
  22. ↑ Roudebash, Brianne (19 May 2017). "California Army National Guard Soldier 'Queen of Battle' paves the way". United States Army. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
  23. ↑ Seymour 2018, p. 4.

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.