| Aghul | |
|---|---|
| агъул чӀал / ağul ç̇al | |
| Native to | North Caucasus, also spoken in Azerbaijan |
| Region | Southeastern Dagestan |
| Ethnicity | Aghuls |
Native speakers | 29,300 (2010 census) [1] |
| Cyrillic | |
| Official status | |
Official language in |  Russia |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | agx |
| Glottolog | aghu1260 Aghulic aghu1253 |
| ELP | Aghul |
Aghul is a Northeast Caucasian language spoken by the Aghuls in southern Dagestan, Russia and in Azerbaijan. It is spoken by about 29,300 [2] people (2010 census).
Aghul belongs to the Eastern Samur group of the Lezgic branch of the Northeast Caucasian language family.
In 2002, Aghul was spoken by 28,300 people in Russia, mainly in Southern Dagestan, as well as 32 people in Azerbaijan. [3]
There are nine languages in the Lezgian language family, namely: Aghul, Tabasaran, Rutul, Lezgian, Tsakhur, Budukh, Kryts, Udi and Archi.
Aghul has contrastive epiglottal consonants. [4] Aghul makes, like many Northeast Caucasian languages, a distinction between tense consonants with concomitant length and weak consonants. The tense consonants are characterized by the intensiveness (tension) of articulation, which naturally leads to a lengthening of the consonant so they are traditionally transcribed with the length diacritic. The gemination of the consonant itself does not create its tension, but morphologically tense consonants often derive from adjoining two single weak consonants. Some[ which? ] Aghul dialects have an especially large number[ vague ] of permitted initial tense consonants. [4]
| Front | Central | Back | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Close | i | ɯ | u | |
| Mid | e | |||
| Open | a | |||
| Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Pharyn- geal | Glottal | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plain | sib. | plain | lab. | |||||||||
| Nasal | m | n | ||||||||||
| Plosive/ Affricate | voiced | b | d | d͡ʒ | d͡ʒʷ | ɡ | ʔ | |||||
| voiceless | fortis | pː | tː | t͡sː | t͡ʃː | t͡ʃːʷ | kː | qː | ||||
| lenis | p | t | t͡s | t͡ʃ | t͡ʃʷ | k | q | |||||
| ejective | pʼ | tʼ | t͡sʼ | t͡ʃʼ | t͡ʃʷʼ | kʼ | qʼ | |||||
| Fricative | voiceless | fortis | fː | sː | ʃː | ʃːʷ | xː | χː | ||||
| lenis | f | s | ʃ | ʃʷ | x | χ | ||||||
| voiced | v | z | ʒ | ʒʷ | ʁ | ʢ | ɦ | |||||
| Trill | r | ʜ | ||||||||||
| Approximant | l | j | ||||||||||
| А а | Б б | В в | Г г | Гъ гъ | Гь гь | Гӏ гӏ | ||
| Д д | Дж дж | Е е | Ё ё | Ж ж | З з | И и | Й й | |
| К к | Кк кк | Къ къ | Кь кь | Кӏ кӏ | Л л | М м | Н н | |
| О о | П п | Пп пп | Пӏ пӏ | Р р | С с | Т т | Тт тт | |
| Тӏ тӏ | У у | Уь уь | Ф ф | Х х | Хъ хъ | Хь хь | Хӏ хӏ | |
| Ц ц | Цӏ цӏ | Ч ч | Чч чч | Чӏ чӏ | Ш ш | Щ щ | ъ | |
| ӏ | ы | ь | Э э | Ю ю | Я я |
 | This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2010) |
There are four core cases: absolutive, ergative, genitive, and dative, as well as a large series of location cases. All cases other than the absolutive (which is unmarked) and ergative take the ergative suffix before their own suffix.
Independent and predicative adjectives take number marker and class marker; also case if used as nominal. As attribute they are invariable. Thus idžed "good", ergative, idžedi, etc. -n, -s; pl. idžedar; but Idže insandi hhuč qini "The good man killed the wolf" (subject in ergative case).
| Singular (Aghul) | Plural (Aghul) | Singular (Tokip) | Plural (Tokip) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | zun | čin (ex), xin (in) | či (ex), xi (in) | či, xi |
| 2 | wun | čun | čun | ču |
| | This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (August 2010) |
| | This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (August 2010) |
Іисайи
ˡisaji
пуная
punaja
гебурис:
geburis:
–
–
ДуьгІе
Du’gˡe
акье
ak’e
миштти:
mištti:
«Дад,
"Dad,
Ве
Ve
ттур
ttur
гирами
girami
хьурай;
x’uraj;
Ве
Ve
Паччагьвел
Paččag’vel
адирай.
adiraj.
ТІалаб
Tˡalab
аркьая
ark’aja
чин
čin
Вакес
Vakes
гьер
g’er
ягьас
jag’as
гуни.
guni.
Гъил
G″il
гьушен
g’ušen
че
če
гунагьарилас,
gunag’arilas,
чинна
činna
гьил
g’il
гьуршанду
g’uršandu
кІилди
kˡildi
час
čas
Іайвелар
ˡajvelar
аркьаттарилас.
ark’attarilas.
ХІа
Xˡa
темехІера
temexˡera
хьас
x’as
амарта
amarta
час».
čas."
And he said unto them, When ye pray, say, Our Father which art in heaven, Hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done, as in heaven, so in earth. Give us day by day our daily bread. And forgive us our sins; for we also forgive every one that is indebted to us. And lead us not into temptation; but deliver us from evil. [9]
Approximants are speech sounds that involve the articulators approaching each other but not narrowly enough nor with enough articulatory precision to create turbulent airflow. Therefore, approximants fall between fricatives, which do produce a turbulent airstream, and vowels, which produce no turbulence. This class is composed of sounds like and semivowels like and, as well as lateral approximants like.
Breathy voice is a phonation in which the vocal folds vibrate, as they do in normal (modal) voicing, but are adjusted to let more air escape which produces a sighing-like sound. A simple breathy phonation,, can sometimes be heard as an allophone of English between vowels, such as in the word behind, for some speakers.
A fricative is a consonant produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. These may be the lower lip against the upper teeth, in the case of ; the back of the tongue against the soft palate in the case of German ; or the side of the tongue against the molars, in the case of Welsh. This turbulent airflow is called frication.
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies how humans produce and perceive sounds or in the case of sign languages, the equivalent aspects of sign. Linguists who specialize in studying the physical properties of speech are phoneticians. The field of phonetics is traditionally divided into three sub-disciplines based on the research questions involved such as how humans plan and execute movements to produce speech, how various movements affect the properties of the resulting sound or how humans convert sound waves to linguistic information. Traditionally, the minimal linguistic unit of phonetics is the phone—a speech sound in a language which differs from the phonological unit of phoneme; the phoneme is an abstract categorization of phones and it is also defined as the smallest unit that discerns meaning between sounds in any given language.
A vowel is a syllabic speech sound pronounced without any stricture in the vocal tract. Vowels are one of the two principal classes of speech sounds, the other being the consonant. Vowels vary in quality, in loudness and also in quantity (length). They are usually voiced and are closely involved in prosodic variation such as tone, intonation and stress.
An affricate is a consonant that begins as a stop and releases as a fricative, generally with the same place of articulation. It is often difficult to decide if a stop and fricative form a single phoneme or a consonant pair. English has two affricate phonemes, and, often spelled ch and j, respectively.
The Northeast Caucasian languages, also called East Caucasian, Nakh-Daghestani or Vainakh-Daghestani, or sometimes Caspian languages, is a family of languages spoken in the Russian republics of Dagestan, Chechnya and Ingushetia and in Northern Azerbaijan as well as in Georgia and diaspora populations in Western Europe and the Middle East. According to Glottolog, there are currently 36 Nakh-Dagestanian languages.
The field of articulatory phonetics is a subfield of phonetics that studies articulation and ways that humans produce speech. Articulatory phoneticians explain how humans produce speech sounds via the interaction of different physiological structures. Generally, articulatory phonetics is concerned with the transformation of aerodynamic energy into acoustic energy. Aerodynamic energy refers to the airflow through the vocal tract. Its potential form is air pressure; its kinetic form is the actual dynamic airflow. Acoustic energy is variation in the air pressure that can be represented as sound waves, which are then perceived by the human auditory system as sound.
In phonetics, ejective consonants are usually voiceless consonants that are pronounced with a glottalic egressive airstream. In the phonology of a particular language, ejectives may contrast with aspirated, voiced and tenuis consonants. Some languages have glottalized sonorants with creaky voice that pattern with ejectives phonologically, and other languages have ejectives that pattern with implosives, which has led to phonologists positing a phonological class of glottalic consonants, which includes ejectives.
The voiced uvular fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ʁ⟩, an inverted small uppercase letter ⟨ʀ⟩, or in broad transcription ⟨r⟩ if rhotic. This consonant is one of the several collectively called guttural R when found in European languages.
Lezgin, also called Lezgi, is a Northeast Caucasian language. It is spoken by the Lezgins, who live in southern Dagestan (Russia); northern Azerbaijan; and to a much lesser degree Turkmenistan; Uzbekistan; Kazakhstan; Turkey, and other countries. It is a much-written literary language and an official language of Dagestan. It is classified as "vulnerable" by UNESCO's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger.
Implosive consonants are a group of stop consonants with a mixed glottalic ingressive and pulmonic egressive airstream mechanism. That is, the airstream is controlled by moving the glottis downward in addition to expelling air from the lungs. Therefore, unlike the purely glottalic ejective consonants, implosives can be modified by phonation. Contrastive implosives are found in approximately 13% of the world's languages.
In linguistics, fortis and lenis, sometimes identified with 'tense' and 'lax', are pronunciations of consonants with relatively greater and lesser energy, respectively. English has fortis consonants, such as the p in pat, with a corresponding lenis consonant, such as the b in bat. Fortis and lenis consonants may be distinguished by tenseness or other characteristics, such as voicing, aspiration, glottalization, velarization, length, and length of nearby vowels. Fortis and lenis were coined for languages where the contrast between sounds such as 'p' and 'b' does not involve voicing.
In phonology, tenseness or tensing is, most broadly, the pronunciation of a sound with greater muscular effort or constriction than is typical. More specifically, tenseness is the pronunciation of a vowel with less centralization, longer duration, and narrower mouth width compared with another vowel. The opposite quality to tenseness is known as laxness or laxing: the pronunciation of a vowel with relatively more centralization, shorter duration, and more widening.
The term stiff voice describes the pronunciation of consonants or vowels with a glottal opening narrower, and the vocal folds stiffer, than occurs in modal voice. Although there is no specific IPA diacritic for stiff voice, the voicing diacritic may be used in conjunction with the symbol for a voiced consonant. In Bru, for example, stiff-voiced vowels have tenseness in the glottis and pharynx without going so far as to be creaky voiced, whereas slack-voiced vowels are lax in the glottis without going so far as to be breathy voice.
In phonetics, advanced tongue root (ATR) and retracted tongue root (RTR) are contrasting states of the root of the tongue during the pronunciation of vowels in some languages, especially in Western and Eastern Africa, but also in Kazakh and Mongolian. ATR vs RTR was once suggested to be the basis for the distinction between tense and lax vowels in European languages such as German, but that no longer seems tenable.
Laryngeal consonants are consonants with their primary articulation in the general region of the larynx. The laryngeal consonants comprise the pharyngeal consonants, the glottal consonants, and for some languages uvular consonants.
Archi is a Northeast Caucasian language spoken by the Archis in the village of Archib, southern Dagestan, Russia, and the six surrounding smaller villages.
Tsakhur is a Northeast Caucasian language spoken by the Tsakhurs in northern Azerbaijan and southwestern Dagestan (Russia). It is spoken by about 11,700 people in Azerbaijan and by about 10,600 people in Russia. The word Tsakhur derives from the name of a Dagestani village where speakers of this language make up the majority.
The alveolar lateral ejective fricative is a type of consonantal sound, reported in the Northwest Caucasian languages and in Modern South Arabian languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɬʼ⟩.
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