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Since the early 2000s, levels of antisemitism in Russia have been low, and steadily decreasing.[2][3] The President of the Russian Jewish Congress attributes this in part to the vanished state sponsorship of antisemitism after the Soviet collapse. At the same time experts warn that worsening economic conditions may lead to the surge of xenophobia and antisemitism in particular.[4]
History
The collapse of the USSR and the economic crisis that followed, the massive impoverishment of large sections of the population, the rapid enrichment of a small group of people and the criticism of the previously dominant ideology contributed to widespread antisemitic sentiment in Russia.[5]
During the 1990s, antisemitism was an enduring undercurrent and source of anxiety, its presence affirmed by easily accessible antisemitic newspapers and other publications, street or popular antisemitism.[1] Mass publication of antisemitic materials in the media began, including books such as Adolf Hitler's Mein Kampf, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, Douglas Reed's The Dispute about Zion, The Prince of this World, The Protocols of the Soviet Wise Men by Grigory Klimov, Dezionization by Valery Yemelyanov, and others.
The number of antisemitic incidents rose sharply after the 1998 Russian financial crisis, the devaluation of the ruble and the ensuing economic hardships affecting a broad segment of the general population.[1]
"Russian March" in 2012 in Moscow. An anti-Semitic poster against the background of flags with a nationalist and neopagan symbol "Kolovrat". The poster reads: "Rus' without a Vozhd is like zhyds without a Talmud."
The ideology of Russian neo-Nazism is closely connected with the ideology of Slavic neopaganism (Rodnoverie). In a number of cases, there are also organizational ties between neo-Nazis and neopagans. One of the founders of Russian neo-paganism, the former Soviet dissident Alexey Dobrovolsky (pagan name – Dobroslav) shared the ideas of neo-Nazism and transferred them to his neopagan teaching.[8][9] According to the historian Roman Shizhensky, Dobrovolsky took the idea of the swastika from the work of the Nazi ideologist Herman Wirth (the first head of the Ahnenerbe).[10]
The eight-beam "kolovrat", consisting of two swastikas superimposed on each other, is considered in Slavic neopaganism to be the ancient Slavic sign of the Sun. In 1996, Dobrovolsky declared it a symbol of an uncompromising "national liberation struggle" against the "Zhyd yoke". According to Dobrovolsky, the meaning of the "kolovrat" completely coincides with the meaning of the Nazi swastika (Hakenkreuz).[9]
Since the mid-2000s, incorporation of antisemitic discourse into the platforms and speeches of nationalist political movements in Russia has been reported by human rights monitors in Russia as well as in the press. Antisemitic slogans and rhetoric in public demonstrations are frequently reported, most of them attributed to nationalist parties and political groups such as "Rusoslav Orthodox". The late member of the Duma Vladimir Zhirinovsky was known for antisemitic speeches.[1]
In 2001, 98 United States Senators penned a letter to President Putin, expressing concern about popular antisemitism, radical extremists (such as former Klansman and Grand Wizard David Duke) in the Russian Federation.[11]
In January 2005, a group of twenty members of the Duma published a statement accusing Jews of being anti-Christian, inhumane, committing ritual murder and that "the entire democratic world today is under the financial and political control of international Jewry".[1]
On 9 June 2005, Russian Orthodox Patriarch Alexei II addressed the international conference of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe in Cordoba, Spain, to declare that the Russian Orthodox Church shares concerns over "incidents of antisemitism, xenophobia and other forms of racism". He described antisemitism, as "one of the more radical expression of misanthropy and racism", and said its perpetrators included "public figures, publicists, and the leaders of radical organizations".[12]
For example, at the 23 February 2006 rally celebrating the Soviet Defenders of the Fatherland Day, a yearly tribute to war veterans, according to the newspaper Kommersant, marchers flourished signs with messages including "Zhyds! Stop drinking Russian blood!", "White State!", and "Russian Government for Russia".[13]
In 2019, Ilya Yablogov wrote that many Russians were keen on antisemitic conspiracy theories in the 1990s, but it declined after 2000 and many high-ranking officials were forced to apologize for the antisemitic behavior.[15]
The 2019 Pew Research poll found that 18% of Russians held unfavorable views of Jews, the number has dropped from 34% in 2009.[16]
On 29 October, around 500 protesters stormed a hotel in Khasavyurt shouting that "Jews are not allowed here" after rumours had been spread that Israeli refugees were residing there. Russian police intervened and permit some of the protesters to enter the hotel to confirm that there were no Israeli nationals present. A sign was then placed at the entrance, declaring that "Entry for Israeli citizens is strictly prohibited."
On the same day, October 29, a mob stormed Uytash Airport after a plane had landed from Tel Aviv. The passengers could not leave the plane for several hours after the protesters surrounded the plane, with some people even climbing it.[20] 20 people were injured, among them nine police officers, of whom two were injured seriously.[21][22] 150 suspects were identified and the airport announced its closure until 6 November, but reopened the next day.[23][24]
Gallery
Demonstration around the time of the 1998 crisis. One sign calls for Nemtsov (murdered in 2015) and Chubais to be put on trial, and another says "Make soap of Zionists!" Nemtsov and Chubais are both of Jewish origin.
Graffiti in Moscow modeled after the leaflets distributed before the Babyn Yar massacre, 2013. It calls on Jews to attend the opening of the exhibition "Russia for all" and bring with them documents, valuables, and food for two days.
The history of the Jews in Russia and areas historically connected with it goes back at least 1,500 years. Jews in Russia have historically constituted a large religious and ethnic diaspora; the Russian Empire at one time hosted the largest population of Jews in the world. Within these territories, the primarily Ashkenazi Jewish communities of many different areas flourished and developed many of modern Judaism's most distinctive theological and cultural traditions, while also facing periods of antisemitic discriminatory policies and persecution, including violent pogroms. Some have described a "renaissance" in the Jewish community inside Russia since the beginning of the 21st century; however, the Russian Jewish population has experienced precipitous decline since the dissolution of the USSR which continues to this day, although it is still among the largest in Europe.
Racism in Russia mainly appears in the form of negative attitudes towards non-ethnic Russian citizens, immigrants or tourists and negative actions against them by some Russians. Traditionally, Russian racism includes antisemitism and Tatarophobia, as well as hostility towards the various peoples of the Caucasus, Central Asia, East Asia and Africa.
The Slavic Native Faith, commonly known as Rodnovery and sometimes as Slavic Neopaganism, is a modern Pagan religion. Classified as a new religious movement, its practitioners hearken back to the historical belief systems of the Slavic peoples of Central and Eastern Europe, though the movement is inclusive of external influences and hosts a variety of currents. "Rodnovery" is a widely accepted self-descriptor within the community, although there are Rodnover organisations which further characterise the religion as Vedism, Orthodoxy, and Old Belief.
The history of the Jews in Ukraine dates back over a thousand years; Jewish communities have existed in the modern territory of Ukraine from the time of the Kievan Rus'. Important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from Hasidism to Zionism, arose there. According to the World Jewish Congress, the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes Europe's third-largest and the world's fifth-largest.
Colonel General Albert Mikhailovich Makashov is a Russian officer and a nationalist-communist politician.
Antisemitism in Ukraine has been a historical issue in the country, particularly in the twentieth century. The history of the Jewish community of the region dates back to the era when ancient Greek colonies existed in it. A third of the Jews of Europe previously lived in Ukraine between 1791 and 1917, within the Pale of Settlement. The large concentration of Jews in this region historically made them an easy target for anti-Jewish actions and pogroms.
Different opinions exist among historians regarding the extent of antisemitism in American history and how American antisemitism contrasted with its European counterpart. In contrast to the horrors of European history, John Higham states that in the United States "no decisive event, no deep crisis, no powerful social movement, no great individual is associated primarily with, or significant chiefly because of anti-Semitism." Accordingly, David A. Gerber concludes that antisemitism "has been a distinctly minor feature of the nation's historical development."
Antisemitism —prejudice, hatred of, or discrimination against Jews—has experienced a long history of expression since the days of ancient civilizations, with most of it having originated in the Christian and pre-Christian civilizations of Europe.
Antisemitism has long existed in the United States. Most Jewish community relations agencies in the United States draw distinctions between antisemitism, which is measured in terms of attitudes and behaviors, and the security and status of American Jews, which are both measured by the occurrence of specific incidents.
Antisemitism in Canada is the manifestation of hostility, prejudice or discrimination against the Canadian Jewish people or Judaism as a religious, ethnic or racial group. This form of racism has affected Jews since Canada's Jewish community was established in the 18th century.
The February Revolution in Russia officially ended a centuries-old regime of antisemitism in the Russian Empire, legally abolishing the Pale of Settlement. However, the previous legacy of antisemitism was continued and furthered by the Soviet state, especially under Joseph Stalin. After 1948, antisemitism reached new heights in the Soviet Union, especially during the anti-cosmopolitan campaign, in which numerous Yiddish-writing poets, writers, painters and sculptors were arrested or killed. This campaign culminated in the so-called Doctors' plot, in which a group of doctors were subjected to a show trial for supposedly having plotted to assassinate Stalin. Although repression eased after Stalin's death, persecution of Jews would continue until the late 1980s.
The Jewish community in Sweden has been prevalent since the 18th century. Today Sweden has a Jewish community of around 20,000, which makes it the 7th largest in the European Union. Antisemitism in historical Sweden primarily manifested as the confiscation of property, restrictions on movement and employment, and forced conversion to Christianity. Antisemitism in present-day Sweden is mainly perpetrated by far-right politicians, neo-Nazis, and Islamists.
Since World War II, antisemitic prejudice in Italy has seldom taken on aggressive forms.
Antisemitism in Greece manifests itself in religious, political and media discourse. The 2009–2018 Greek government-debt crisis has facilitated the rise of far right groups in Greece, most notably the formerly obscure Golden Dawn.
Evidence for the presence of Jewish communities in the geographical area today covered by Austria can be traced back to the 12th century. In 1848 Jews were granted civil rights and the right to establish an autonomous religious community, but full citizenship rights were given only in 1867. In an atmosphere of economic, religious and social freedom, the Jewish population grew from 6,000 in 1860 to almost 185,000 in 1938. In March 1938, Austria was annexed by Nazi Germany and thousands of Austrians and Austrian Jews who opposed Nazi rule were sent to concentration camps. Of the 65,000 Viennese Jews deported to concentration camps, only about 2,000 survived, while around 800 survived World War II in hiding.
Neo-Nazism in Russia is a far-right political and militant movement in Russia. Emerging during the late Soviet era and early 1990s from white power skinheads and football hooligans, neo-Nazism in Russia has become known for a series of violent attacks and murders targeting Central Asian and Caucasian migrants. Videos of these attacks have been uploaded onto the internet by members of neo-Nazi or skinhead gangs, leading to international outcry and an eventual crackdown in the late 2000s and early 2010s.
Slavic Native Faith or Slavic Neopaganism in Russia is widespread, according to some estimates from research organisations which put the number of Russian Rodnovers in the millions. The Rodnover population generally has a high education and many of its exponents are intellectuals, many of whom are politically engaged both in the right and the left wings of the political spectrum. Particular movements that have arisen within Russian Rodnovery include various doctrinal frameworks such as Anastasianism, Authentism, Bazhovism, Ivanovism, Kandybaism, Levashovism, Peterburgian Vedism, Slavic-Hill Rodnovery, Vseyasvetnaya Gramota, the Way of Great Perfection, the Way of Troyan, and Ynglism, as well as various attempts to construct specific ethnic Rodnoveries, such as Krivich Rodnovery, Meryan Rodnovery, Viatich Rodnovery. Rodnovery in Russia is also influenced by, and in turn influences, movements that have their roots in Russian cosmism and identify themselves as belonging to the same Vedic culture, such as Roerichism and Blagovery.
Alexey Aleksandrovich Dobrovolsky, also known as Dobroslav, was a Soviet-Russian ideologue of Slavic neopaganism, a founder of Russian Rodnoverie, national anarchist, neo-Nazi, and volkhv of the Nature Conservation Society "Strely Yarily".
Valery Nikolayevich Yemelyanov was a Soviet-Russian Arabist and public figure, teacher of Arabic and Hebrew, and candidate of economic sciences. One of the founders of Russian neo-paganism, a representative of the "first wave" of the Russian neo-pagan movement, the creator of a pseudo-historical concept of the ancient civilization of the "Aryans-Veneti", and an author of antisemitic ideas. He was the founder and chairman of World Anti-Zionist and Anti-Masonic Front (VASAMF) "Pamyat" and author of the books Dezionization and Jewish Nazism and the Asiatic Mode of Production.
Towards the end of October 2023, several violent antisemitic riots occurred in the North Caucasus region of Russia. A majority of the region's population is Muslim. The riots occurred during the 2023 Israel–Hamas war, a conflict which caused an increase in antisemitic incidents in various parts of the world.
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