Baby colic

Last updated
Colic
Other namesInfantile colic
Human-Male-White-Newborn-Baby-Crying.jpg
A crying newborn
Specialty Pediatrics
Symptoms Crying for more than three hours a day, for more than three days a week, for three weeks [1]
Complications Frustration for the parents, depression following delivery, child abuse [1]
Usual onsetSix weeks of age [1]
DurationTypically goes away by six months of age [1]
CausesUnknown [1]
Diagnostic method Based on symptoms after ruling out other possible causes [1]
Differential diagnosis Corneal abrasion, hair tourniquet, hernia, testicular torsion [2]
Treatment Conservative treatment, extra support for the parents [1] [3]
Prognosis No long term problems [4]
Frequency~25% of babies [1]

Baby colic, also known as infantile colic, is defined as episodes of crying for more than three hours a day, for more than three days a week, for three weeks in an otherwise healthy child. [1] Often crying occurs in the evening. [1] It typically does not result in long-term problems. [4] The crying can result in frustration of the parents, depression following delivery, excess visits to the doctor, and child abuse. [1]

Contents

The cause of colic is unknown. [1] Some believe it is due to gastrointestinal discomfort like intestinal cramping. [5] Diagnosis requires ruling out other possible causes. [1] Concerning findings include a fever, poor activity, or a swollen abdomen. [1] Fewer than 5% of infants with excess crying have an underlying organic disease. [1]

Treatment is generally conservative, with little to no role for either medications or alternative therapies. [3] Extra support for the parents may be useful. [1] Tentative evidence supports certain probiotics for the baby and a low-allergen diet by the mother in those who are breastfed. [1] Hydrolyzed formula may be useful in those who are bottlefed. [1]

Colic affects 10–40% of babies. [1] Equally common in bottle and breast-fed infants, it begins during the second week of life, peaks at 6 weeks, and resolves between 12 and 16 weeks. [6] It rarely lasts up to one year of age. [7] It occurs at the same rate in boys and in girls. [1] The first detailed medical description of the problem was published in 1954. [8]

Signs and symptoms

Colic is defined as episodes of crying for more than three hours a day, for more than three days a week for at least a three-week duration in an otherwise healthy child. [9] It is most common around six weeks of age and gets better by six months of age. [9] By contrast, infants normally cry an average of just over two hours a day, with the duration peaking at six weeks. [9] With colic, periods of crying most commonly happen in the evening and for no obvious reason. [1] Associated symptoms may include legs pulled up to the stomach, a flushed face, clenched hands, and a wrinkled brow. [9] The cry is often high pitched (piercing). [9]

Effect on the family

An infant with colic may affect family stability and be a cause of short-term anxiety or depression in the father and mother. [9] It may also contribute to exhaustion and stress in the parents. [10]

Persistent infant crying has been associated with severe marital discord, postpartum depression, early termination of breastfeeding, frequent visits to doctors, a quadrupling of laboratory tests, and prescription of medication for acid reflux.[ citation needed ] Babies with colic may be exposed to abuse, especially shaken baby syndrome. [9]

Parent training programs for managing infantile colic may result in a reduction in crying time. [11]

Causes

The cause of colic is generally unknown. Fewer than 5% of infants who cry excessively turn out to have an underlying organic disease, such as constipation, gastroesophageal reflux disease, lactose intolerance, anal fissures, subdural hematomas, or infantile migraine. [9] Babies fed cow's milk have been shown to develop antibody responses to the bovine protein, and some studies have shown an association between consumption of cow's milk and infant colic. [12] [13] Studies performed showed conflicting evidence about the role of cow's milk allergy. [9] While previously believed to be related to gas pains, this does not appear to be the case. [9] Another theory holds that colic is related to hyperperistalsis of the digestive tube (increased level of activity of contraction and relaxation). The evidence that the use of anticholinergic agents improve colic symptoms supports this hypothesis. [9]

Psychological and social factors have been proposed as a cause, but there is no evidence. Studies performed do not support the theory that maternal (or paternal) personality or anxiety causes colic, nor that it is a consequence of a difficult temperament of the baby, but families with colicky children may eventually develop anxiety, fatigue and problems with family functioning as a result. [9] There is some evidence that cigarette smoke may increase the risk. [1] It seems unrelated to breast or bottle feeding with rates similar in both groups. [14] Reflux does not appear to be related to colic. [15]

Diagnosis

Colic is diagnosed after other potential causes of crying are excluded. [9] This can typically be done via a history and physical exam, and in most cases tests such as X-rays or blood tests are not needed. [9] Babies who cry may simply be hungry, uncomfortable, or ill. [16] Less than 10% of babies who would meet the definition of colic based on the amount they cry have an identifiable underlying disease. [17]

Cause for concern include: an elevated temperature, a history of breathing problems or a child who is not appropriately gaining weight. [9]

Indications that further investigations may be needed include: [18]

Problems to consider when the above are present include: [18]

Persistently fussy babies with poor weight gain, vomiting more than five times a day, or other significant feeding problems should be evaluated for other illnesses (e.g. urinary infection, intestinal obstruction, acid reflux). [19]

Treatment

Management of colic is generally conservative and involves the reassurance of parents. [9] Calming measures may be used and include soothing motions, limiting stimulation, pacifier use, and carrying the baby around in a carrier, [9] although it is not entirely clear if these actions have any effect beyond placebo. [9] [20] Swaddling does not appear to help. [1]

Medication

No medications have been found to be both safe and effective. [9] Simethicone is safe but does not work, while dicyclomine works but is not safe. [9] Evidence does not support the use of cimetropium bromide, [20] and there is little evidence for alternative medications or techniques. [21] While medications to treat reflux are common, there is no evidence that they are useful. [15]

Diet

Dietary changes by infants are generally not needed. [9] In mothers who are breastfeeding, a hypoallergenic diet by the mother—not eating milk and dairy products, eggs, wheat, and nuts—may improve matters, [9] [10] [22] while elimination of only cow's milk does not seem to produce any improvement. [22] In formula-fed infants, switching to a soy-based or hydrolyzed protein formula may help. [10] Evidence of benefit is greater for hydrolyzed protein formula with the benefit from soy based formula being disputed. [23] [24] Both these formulas have greater cost and may not be as palatable. [24] Supplementation with fiber has not been shown to have any benefit. [10] A 2018 Cochrane review of 15 randomized controlled trials involving 1,121 infants was unable to recommend any dietary interventions. [25] A 2019 review determined that probiotics were no more effective than placebo although a reduction in crying time was measured. [26]

Complimentary and alternative medicine

No clear beneficial effect from spinal manipulation [27] [28] or massage has been shown. [9] Further, as there is no evidence of safety for cervical manipulation for baby colic, it is not advised. [29] There is a case of a three-month-old dying following manipulation of the neck area. [29]

Little clinical evidence supports the efficacy of "gripe water" and caution in use is needed, especially in formulations that include alcohol or sugar. [9] Evidence does not support lactase supplementation. [20] The use of probiotics, specifically Lactobacillus reuteri , decreases crying time at three weeks by 46 minutes in breastfeed babies but has unclear effects in those who are formula fed. [30] Fennel also appears effective. [31] [32]

Prognosis

Infants who are colicky do just as well as their non colicky peers with respect to temperament at one year of age. [9]

Epidemiology

Colic affects 10–40% of children, [1] occurring at the same rate in boys and in girls. [14]

History

The word "colic" is derived from the ancient Greek word for intestine (sharing the same root as the word "colon"). [33]

It has been an age-old practice to drug crying infants. During the second century AD, the Greek physician Galen prescribed opium to calm fussy babies, and during the Middle Ages in Europe, mothers and wet nurses smeared their nipples with opium lotions before each feeding. Alcohol was also commonly given to infants. [34]

In past decades, doctors recommended treating colicky babies with sedative medications (e.g. phenobarbital, Valium, alcohol), analgesics (e.g. opium) or anti-spasm drugs (e.g. scopolamine, Donnatal, dicyclomine), but none of these are now recommended because of potential serious side-effects, including death.[ citation needed ]

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Otitis media</span> Inflammation of the middle ear

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Infant crying</span> Medical condition

Infant crying is the crying of infants as a response to an internal or external stimulus. Infants cry as a form of basic instinctive communication. Essentially, newborns are transitioning from life in the womb to the external environment. Up to 27% of parents describe problems with infant crying in the first four months. Up to 38% identify a problem with their infant crying within the first year. Parents can be concerned about the amount of time that their infant cries, how the infant can be consoled, and disrupted sleeping patterns. Colic is used as a synonym for excessive crying of infants, even though colic may not be the cause of excessive crying.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Johnson, JD; Cocker, K; Chang, E (1 October 2015). "Infantile Colic: Recognition and Treatment". American Family Physician. 92 (7): 577–82. PMID   26447441. Archived from the original on 26 August 2017. Retrieved 22 July 2017.
  2. ↑ "Colic Differential Diagnoses". emedicine.medscape.com. 3 September 2015. Archived from the original on 5 November 2017. Retrieved 1 June 2017.
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  5. ↑ Shamir, Raanan; St James-Roberts, Ian; Di Lorenzo, Carlo; Burns, Alan J.; Thapar, Nikhil; Indrio, Flavia; Riezzo, Giuseppe; Raimondi, Francesco; Di Mauro, Antonio (2013-12-01). "Infant crying, colic, and gastrointestinal discomfort in early childhood: a review of the evidence and most plausible mechanisms". Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. 57 (Suppl 1): S1–45. doi: 10.1097/MPG.0b013e3182a154ff . ISSN   1536-4801. PMID   24356023. S2CID   30840225.
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  8. ↑ Long, Tony (2006). Excessive Crying in Infancy. John Wiley & Sons. p. 5. ISBN   9780470031711. Archived from the original on 2016-10-18.
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  12. ↑ Lucassen, P. L.; Assendelft, W. J.; Gubbels, J. W.; van Eijk, J. T.; van Geldrop, W. J.; Neven, A. K. (1998-05-23). "Effectiveness of treatments for infantile colic: systematic review". BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 316 (7144): 1563–1569. doi:10.1136/bmj.316.7144.1563. ISSN   0959-8138. PMC   28556 . PMID   9596593.
  13. ↑ Delire, M.; Cambiaso, C. L.; Masson, P. L. (1978-04-13). "Circulating immune complexes in infants fed on cow's milk". Nature. 272 (5654): 632. Bibcode:1978Natur.272..632D. doi: 10.1038/272632a0 . ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   565472. S2CID   534896.
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  16. ↑ Barr, RG (1998). "Colic and crying syndromes in infants". Pediatrics. 102 (5 Suppl E): 1282–6. doi:10.1542/peds.102.SE1.1282. PMID   9794970. S2CID   40640662.
  17. ↑ Hyman, PE; Milla, PJ; Benninga, MA; Davidson, GP; Fleisher, DF; Taminiau, J (April 2006). "Childhood functional gastrointestinal disorders: neonate/toddler". Gastroenterology. 130 (5): 1519–26. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2005.11.065 . PMID   16678565.
  18. 1 2 Karp, Harvey (2003). The Happiest Baby on the Block: The New Way to Calm Crying and Help Your Baby Sleep Longer. New York: Bantam. ISBN   978-0-553-38146-7.[ page needed ]
  19. ↑ Heine, Ralf G; Jordan, Brigid; Lubitz, Lionel; Meehan, Michele; Catto-Smith, Anthony G (2006). "Clinical predictors of pathological gastro-oesophageal reflux in infants with persistent distress". Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health. 42 (3): 134–9. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1754.2006.00812.x. PMID   16509914. S2CID   40915052.
  20. 1 2 3 Hall, B; Chesters, J; Robinson, A (February 2012). "Infantile colic: a systematic review of medical and conventional therapies". Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health. 48 (2): 128–37. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1754.2011.02061.x. PMID   21470331. S2CID   41709424.
  21. ↑ Perry, R; Hunt, K; Ernst, E (April 2011). "Nutritional supplements and other complementary medicines for infantile colic: a systematic review". Pediatrics. 127 (4): 720–33. doi:10.1542/peds.2010-2098. PMID   21444591. S2CID   19536242.
  22. 1 2 Nocerino R; Pezzella V; Cosenza L; Amoroso A; Di Scala C; Amato F; et al. (2015). "The controversial role of food allergy in infantile colic: evidence and clinical management". Nutrients (Review). 7 (3): 2015–25. doi: 10.3390/nu7032015 . PMC   4377897 . PMID   25808260.
  23. ↑ Bhatia, J; Greer, F; American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Nutrition (May 2008). "Use of soy protein-based formulas in infant feeding". Pediatrics. 121 (5): 1062–8. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-0564. PMID   18450914.
  24. 1 2 Savino, F; Tarasco, V (December 2010). "New treatments for infant colic". Current Opinion in Pediatrics. 22 (6): 791–7. doi:10.1097/MOP.0b013e32833fac24. PMID   20859207. S2CID   26003983.
  25. ↑ Gordon, Morris; Biagioli, Elena; Sorrenti, Miriam; Lingua, Carla; Moja, Lorenzo; Banks, Shel Sc; Ceratto, Simone; Savino, Francesco (10 October 2018). "Dietary modifications for infantile colic". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 10 (2): CD011029. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011029.pub2. ISSN   1469-493X. PMC   6394439 . PMID   30306546.
  26. ↑ Ong, Teck Guan; Gordon, Morris; Banks, Shel Sc; Thomas, Megan R.; Akobeng, Anthony K. (13 March 2019). "Probiotics to prevent infantile colic". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 3 (3): CD012473. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012473.pub2. ISSN   1469-493X. PMC   6415699 . PMID   30865287.
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  29. 1 2 Camilleri M, Park SY, Scarpato E, Staiano A (2017). "Exploring hypotheses and rationale for causes of infantile colic". Neurogastroenterol Motil (Review). 29 (2): e12943. doi:10.1111/nmo.12943. PMC   5276723 . PMID   27647578.
  30. ↑ Sung, V; D'Amico, F; Cabana, MD; Chau, K; Koren, G; Savino, F; Szajewska, H; Deshpande, G; Dupont, C; Indrio, F; Mentula, S; Partty, A; Tancredi, D (January 2018). "Lactobacillus reuteri to Treat Infant Colic: A Meta-analysis". Pediatrics. 141 (1): e20171811. doi: 10.1542/peds.2017-1811 . PMID   29279326.
  31. ↑ Harb, T; Matsuyama, M; David, M; Hill, RJ (May 2016). "Infant Colic-What works: A Systematic Review of Interventions for Breast-fed Infants". Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. 62 (5): 668–86. doi:10.1097/MPG.0000000000001075. PMID   26655941. S2CID   26126920.
  32. ↑ Anheyer, D; Frawley, J; Koch, AK; Lauche, R; Langhorst, J; Dobos, G; Cramer, H (June 2017). "Herbal Medicines for Gastrointestinal Disorders in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review". Pediatrics. 139 (6): e20170062. doi: 10.1542/peds.2017-0062 . PMID   28562281.
  33. ↑ Sanghavi, Darshak (Mar 29, 2005). "Bleary parents crave colic cure". Boston Globe. Archived from the original on 2013-11-06.
  34. ↑ Solter, A (1998). Tears and Tantrums: What to Do When Babies and Children Cry. Goleta, CA: Shining Star Press. ISBN   9780961307363.
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