Group of closely related and visibly similar domestic dogs
Montage showing the morphological variation of the dog.
A dog breed is a particular type of dog that was purposefully bred by humans to perform specific tasks, such as herding, hunting, and guarding. Dogs are the most variable mammal on Earth, with artificial selection producing upward of 360 globally recognized breeds.[1] These breeds possess distinct traits related to morphology, which include body size, skull shape, tail phenotype, fur type, body shape, and coat colour. However, there is only one species of dog. Their behavioral traits include guarding, herding, and hunting, and personality traits such as hyper-social behavior, boldness, and aggression. Most breeds were derived from small numbers of founders within the last 200 years. As a result of their adaptability to many environments and breedability for human needs, today dogs are the most abundant carnivore species and are dispersed around the world.[2]
A dog breed will consistently produce the physical traits, movement and temperament that were developed over decades of selective breeding. For each breed they recognize, kennel clubs and breed registries usually maintain and publish a breed standard which is a written description of the ideal specimen of the breed.[3][4][5] Other uses of the term breed when referring to dogs include pure breeds, cross-breeds, mixed breeds and natural breeds.[6]
Prior to the standardization of dog breeds, there were many different types of dogs that were defined by their own, unique functions. Many different terms were used to describe dogs, such as breed, strain, type, kind, and variety. By the end of the Victorian era, society had changed and so did the role of dogs. The form was given a more prominent role than function.[7] Different types or breeds of dog were being developed by breeders who wanted to define specific characteristics and desirable features in their dogs. Driven by dog shows and the groups that hosted them, the term dog breed took on an entirely new meaning. Dog show competitions included best-in-breed winners, and the purebreds were winning.[7] Breed standards are the reason the breed came to be, and with those standards are key features, including form, function and fitness for purpose. The Kennel Club in the UK was founded in 1873, and was the world's first national kennel club and breed registry.[8] The International Canine Federation was founded in 1911 as a worldwide organization. Its objective is to bring global uniformity to the breeding, exhibiting and judging of pure-bred dogs. It now has 99 member countries. According to BigThink, over 40% of the world’s dog breeds come from the United Kingdom, France and Germany. It states: "Great Britain and France are the ground zero of dog fancying, with 57 registered breeds each. Germany is not far behind, with 47 breeds. These three countries alone represent more than 40% of all dog breeds recognized by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale."[9]
In May 2024, a detailed consideration of too much breeding of dogs was reported in The New York Times.[10]
An 1897 illustration showing a range of European dog breeds
Sled dog types, sketched in 1833Tesem, an ancient Egyptian sight-hound
In 2017, a study showed that 9,000 years ago the domestic dog was present at what is now Zhokhov Island, arctic north-eastern Siberia, which was connected to the mainland at that time. The dogs were selectively bred as either sled dogs or as hunting dogs, which implies that a sled dog standard and a hunting dog standard existed at that time. The optimal maximum size for a sled dog is 20–25kg (44–55lb) based on thermo-regulation, and the ancient sled dogs were between 16–25kg (35–55lb). The same standard has been found in the remains of sled dogs from this region 2,000 years ago and in the modern Siberian Husky breed standard. Other dogs were larger at 30kg (66lb) and appear to be dogs that had been crossed with wolves and used for polar-bear hunting.[11]
Between 3,000 and 4,000 years ago greyhound-types of dogs were depicted on pottery and paintings in Egypt and Western Asia. Mastiff-type dogs were kept for guarding and hunting, and short-legged dogs were also bred.[12] Most modern dog breeds are the products of the controlled breeding practices of the Victorian era (1830-1900),[13][14] and the accurate documenting of pedigrees with the establishment of the English Kennel Club in 1873 in imitation of other stud book registries for cattle and horses.[15]
Dogs share a recent common ancestor with modern wolves
The domestic dog is the first species, and the only large carnivore, to have been domesticated. The first dogs were certainly wolflike, but the phenotypic changes that coincided with the dog–wolf genetic divergence are not known.[16] Dogs are the most variable mammal on earth with around 450 globally recognized dog breeds.[2] In the Victorian era, directed human selection developed the modern dog breeds, which resulted in a vast range of phenotypes.[16] Most breeds were derived from small numbers of founders within the last 200 years,[16][2] and since then dogs have undergone rapid phenotypic change and were formed into today's modern breeds due to artificial selection imposed by humans. These breeds can vary in size and weight from a 0.46kg (1.0lb) teacup poodle to a 90kg (200lb) giant mastiff. The skull, body, and limb proportions vary significantly between breeds, with dogs displaying more phenotypic diversity than can be found within the entire order of carnivores. These breeds possess distinct traits related to morphology, which include body size, skull shape, tail phenotype, fur type and colour.[16] The difference in size has been attributed to a lncRNA variant in the IGF1 region arisen in wolves from northern latitudes c. 53.000 years ago and fixed by natural and subsequently by human selection.[17] Their behavioral traits include guarding, herding, and hunting,[16] retrieving, and scent detection. Their personality traits include hypersocial behavior, boldness, and aggression,[2] which demonstrates the functional and behavioral diversity of dogs.[16] As a result, today dogs are the most abundant carnivore species and are dispersed around the world.[2] The most striking example of this dispersal is that of the numerous modern breeds of European lineage during the Victorian era.[18]
A genetic study identified 51 regions of the dog genome which were associated with phenotype variation among breeds in the 57 traits studied, which included body, cranial, dental, and long bone shape and size. There were three quantitative trait loci that explained most of the phenotype variation. Indicators of recent selection were shown by many of the 51 genomic regions that were associated with traits that define a breed, which include body size, coat characteristics, and ear floppiness.[19]
Cladogram of nine breeds that are genetically divergent from others[20]
Ancient dog breeds
"Ancient breed" is a term formerly, but no longer, used for a particular group of dog breeds by the American Kennel Club.[14][21] These breeds were referred to as "ancient", as opposed to modern, breeds because historically it was believed their origins dated back more than 500 years.
In 2004, a study looked at the microsatellites of 414 purebred dogs representing 85 breeds. The study found that dog breeds were so genetically distinct that 99% of individual dogs could be correctly assigned to their breed based on their genotype, indicating that breeding barriers (pure-bred breeding) have led to distinct genetic units. The study identified 9 breeds that could be represented on the branches of a phylogenetic tree which grouped together with strong statistical support and could be separated from the other breeds with a modern European origin. These 9 breeds had been referred to as "ancient breeds". The study found that the Pharaoh Hound and Ibizan Hound were not as old as once believed; rather, they had been recreated from combinations of other breeds, and that the Norwegian Elkhound grouped with the other European dogs despite reports of direct Scandinavian origins dating back 5,000 years.[20]
Dog types are broad categories of dogs based on form, function or style of work, lineage, or appearance. In contrast, modern dog breeds are particular breed standards, sharing a common set of heritable characteristics, determined by the kennel club that recognizes the breed.
The spread of modern dog breeds has been difficult to resolve because many are the product of the controlled breeding practices of the Victorian era (1830–1900).[13][14] In 2010, a study looked at 48,000single nucleotide polymorphisms that gave a genome-wide coverage of 912dogs representing 85breeds.[22]
The study found distinct genetic clusters within modern dogs that largely corresponded to phenotype or function. These included spitz-breeds, toy dogs, spaniels, Mastiff-like breeds, small terriers, retrievers, herding dogs, scent-hounds, and sight-hounds. There were 17breeds that conflicted with phenotype or function and these were thought to be the result of crossing some of the other phenotypes. As in a 2004 study that found 9'ancient breeds' to be genetically divergent, the study found 13breeds that were genetically divergent from the modern breeds: the Basenji, Saluki, Afghan hound, Samoyed, Canaan dog, New Guinea singing dog, dingo, Chow Chow, Chinese Shar Pei, Akita, Alaskan malamute, Siberian husky and American Eskimo dog.[22]
The study found that there were three well-supported groups that were highly divergent and distinct from modern domestic dogs.
The earliest books in the English language to mention numbers of dog types are from the "Cynegetica" (hunting literature), namely, The Art of Venery (1327) by Twiti (Twici), a treatise that describes hunting with the limer (a leashed bloodhound type); the pack of running hounds, which included barcelets and brachetz (both scent hounds); and the sighthound and greyhound.[23] More significant in recording the use and description of various dog types is The Master of Game (circa 1406) by Edward of York,[24][25] a treatise that describes dogs and their work, such as the alaunt, greyhound, pack scent hounds, spaniel, and mastiff, used by the privileged and wealthy for hunting purposes. The Master of Game is a combination of the earlier Art of Venery and the French hunting treatise Livre de Chasse by Gaston Phoebus (circa 1387).[26]The Book of Saint Albans, published in 1486,[27][28] a "school" book about hawking, hunting, fishing, and heraldry, attributed to Juliana Berners (Barnes), lists dogs of the time mainly by function: "First there is a greyhound, a bastard, a mongrel, a mastiff, a limer, a spaniel, "raches" (small-to-medium-sized scenthounds), "kennets" (small hunting dogs), terriers, "butcher's hounds", dung-heap dogs, "trundel tails" (lapdogs?) and prick-eared curs, and small ladies puppies that bear away the fleas and diverse small sorts."
The 2012 study found that modern breeds only emerged in the 19th century and that claims of their antiquity are based on little or no historical or empirical evidence. The study indicated that throughout history, global dog populations experienced numerous episodes of diversification and homogenization, with each round further reducing the power of genetic data derived from modern breeds to help infer their early history.[29]
Of the basal breeds, the American Eskimo Dog and Eurasier were the very recent product of cross-breeding other basal breeds. Most basal breeds have hybridized with other lineages in the past. If those other lineages were other basal breeds then a basal genetic signature remains. The combination of introgression and past population bottlenecks suggested that basal breeds have little or no genetic connections to their ancestral populations and that their genetic distinctiveness does not signify ancient heritage. They are distinctive from the modern breeds because the genetic heritage of the modern breeds has become blurred due to admixture, and the basal breeds have mostly avoided admixture with them due to geographic or cultural barriers.[29]
Medical research
As dogs are a subspecies but their breeds are distinct genetic units, and because only certain breeds share the same type of cancers as humans, the differences in the genes of different breeds may be useful in human medical research.[30]
Breed temperament
In 2014, a study indicated that some breed-temperaments, such as anxiety or fear, may be linked to gene mutations. Other temperaments may be due to the legacies of 'ancient' ancestry.[31]
Groups of owners that have dogs of the same breed and have an interest in dog breeding can form national Kennel clubs. Kennel Clubs maintain breed standards, record pedigrees in a breed registry (or studbook), and issue the rules for conformation dog shows and trials and accreditation of judges. They often serve as registries, which are lists of adult purebred dogs and lists of litters of puppies born to purebred parents.
A dog breed is represented by a sufficient number of individuals to stably transfer its specific characteristics over generations. Dogs of same breed have similar characteristics of appearance and behavior, primarily because they come from a select set of ancestors who had the same characteristics.[32] Dogs of a specific breed breed true, producing young that are very similar to their parents. An individual dog is identified as a member of a breed through proof of ancestry, using genetic analysis or written records of ancestry. Without such proof, identification of a specific breed is not reliable.[33] Such records, called stud books, may be maintained by individuals, clubs, or other organizations.
Kennel clubs provide the recognition of distinct dog breeds, but there are many independent clubs with differing, and sometimes inconsistent standards and they need not apply scientific standards. Four varieties of the Belgian Shepherd Dog are recognised as four distinct breeds by the New Zealand Kennel Club.[34] Further, some groups of dogs which clearly share a persistent set of characteristics and documented descent from a known foundation stock may still not be recognized by some clubs as breeds. For instance, the feist is a hunting dog raised in the Southern United States for hunting small game. Feists have a consistent set of characteristics that reliably differentiate them from other dog types and breeds. However, the United Kennel Club recognizes one breed of feist, the Treeing Feist, while the American Kennel Club does not recognize any feist breed.
A dog is said to be purebred if their parents were purebred and if the dog meets the standards of the breed. The American Kennel Club allows mixed-breed dogs to be shown but under the condition the animals have been spayed or neutered, are not a wolf hybrid, and not eligible for the AKC Foundation Stock Service Program or an AKC Purebred Alternative Listing (PAL).[35]
In Canada, the Animal Pedigree Act lays out strict standards for the documenting of what it calls "evolving breeds".[36][37]
Breed standards
The breed standard for each breed of dog is a detailed description of the appearance and behaviour of an idealized dog of that breed.[38] Included in the breed standard description are externally observable aspects of appearance and behaviour that are considered by the breed club to be the most important for the breed, and externally observable details of appearance or temperament that are considered by the breed club to be unacceptable (called faults). In addition, most breed standards include a historical section, describing the place of origin and the original work done by the breed or its ancestor types.
Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) is neither a breed registry nor does it issue pedigrees or keep addresses for breeders.[40] It is a global canine organization with member and contract partners (one member per country) that conduct international conformation shows, working/hunting/herding trials, and various other events. The results are submitted to FCI for processing, approval and international recognition. Each of the member and contract partners issue and maintain their own pedigrees and respective breed standards, and train their own judges. FCI ensures that each member mutually recognizes the pedigrees and judges of all FCI members.[41]
Health issues
Purebred dogs have more health problems than mongrel dogs, and require more veterinary visits,[42] and tend to have lower longevity.[43][44] Indeed, studies have reported lifespans that are shorter by between one and almost two years.[45][46] Notably, dog breeds with flat faces and short noses have breathing difficulties,[47] eye trouble and other health issues.[48]
The Fédération Cynologique Internationale is a global organisation with 98 members and contract partners (one member per country) that recognize 354 purebreds.[41]
Historically, crosses between dogs of different types were more well accepted at a time when modern purebred breeds (based on the eugenics principles) did not yet exist.[56][57] Some crossbred dogs, created by breeding two purebred dogs of different breeds, may have the advantage of heterosis, or crossbreed vigor. This advantage can be progressively diluted when two crossbreeds are bred in the attempt to create a breed, narrowing the gene pool. The best way to continue taking advantage of crossbreed vigor is from the breeding of dogs of purebred ancestry, as this vigor is typically seen only in the first generation cross of two purebred animals of separate breeds, thus taking advantage of genetic diversity.
A mongrel, mixed-breed dog or mutt is a dog that does not belong to one officially recognized breed but can be a mix of two breeds and is not the result of intentional breeding.[60]
In the United States, the term mixed-breed is a favored synonym over mongrel among individuals who wish to avoid negative connotations associated with the latter term.[61] The implication that such dogs must be a mix of defined breeds may stem from an inverted understanding of the origins of dog breeds. Purebred dogs have been, for the most part, artificially created from random-bred populations by human selective breeding with the purpose of enhancing desired physical, behavioral, or temperamental characteristics. Dogs that are not purebred are not necessarily a mix of such defined breeds.[62] Therefore, among some experts and fans of such dogs, mongrel is still the preferred term.[63][64][65][66]
Natural breeds rose through time in response to a particular environment and in isolation from other populations of the species.[67] This environment included humans but with little or no selective breeding by humans.[68]
Sighthounds are a type of hound dog that hunts primarily by sight and speed, unlike scent hounds, which rely on scent and endurance.
The American Kennel Club (AKC) is a registry of purebred dog pedigrees in the United States. In addition to maintaining its pedigree registry, this kennel club also promotes and sanctions events for purebred dogs, including the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show, an annual event which predates the official forming of the AKC, the National Dog Show and the AKC National Championship. The AKC is a non-member partner with the Fédération Cynologique Internationale. The AKC recognizes 200 dog breeds, as of 2022.
The Rhodesian Ridgeback is a large dog breed originally bred in Southern Africa. The original breed standard was drafted by F.R. Barnes, in Bulawayo, Southern Rhodesia, in 1922, and approved by the South African Kennel Union in 1927. Its forebears can be traced to the semi-domesticated ridged hunting and guardian dogs of the Khoikhoi. These were interbred with European dogs by the early colonists of the Cape Colony for assisting in the hunting of lions.
The Staffordshire Bull Terrier, also called the Staffy or Stafford, is a purebred dog of small to medium size in the terrier group that originated in the northern parts of Birmingham and in the Black Country of Staffordshire, for which it is named. They descended from 19th-century bull terriers that were developed by crossing bulldogs with various terriers to create a generic type of dog generally known as bull and terriers. Staffords share the same ancestry with the modern Bull Terrier, although the two breeds developed along independent lines, and do not resemble each other. Modern Staffords more closely resemble the old type of bull terrier, and were first recognised as a purebred dog breed by The Kennel Club of Great Britain in 1935.
The Alaskan Malamute is a large breed of dog that was originally bred for its strength and endurance, to haul heavy freight as a sled dog, and as a hound. It is similar to other arctic breeds such as the husky, the spitz, the Greenland Dog, Canadian Eskimo Dog, the Siberian Husky, and the Samoyed.
The Saarlooswolfdog is a wolfdog breed originating from the Netherlands by the crossing of a German Shepherd with a Siberian grey wolf in 1935. The offspring were then further crossed with German Shepherds.
A dog show is an animal show, an event where dogs are exhibited. A conformation show, also referred to as a breed show, is a kind of dog show in which a judge, familiar with a specific dog breed, evaluates individual purebred dogs for how well the dogs conform to the established breed type for their breed, as described in a breed's individual breed standard.
Dog breeding is the practice of mating selected dogs with the intention of maintaining or producing specific qualities and characteristics. When dogs reproduce without such human intervention, their offspring's characteristics are determined by natural selection, while "dog breeding" refers specifically to the artificial selection of dogs, in which dogs are intentionally bred by their owners. Breeding relies on the science of genetics, hence a breeder who is knowledgeable on canine genetics, health, and the intended purpose of the dogs attempts to breed suitable dogs.
The Poodle, called the Pudel in German and the Caniche in French, is a breed of water dog. The breed is divided into four varieties based on size, the Standard Poodle, Medium Poodle, Miniature Poodle and Toy Poodle, although the Medium Poodle is not universally recognised. They have a distinctive thick, curly coat that comes in many colors and patterns, with only solid colors recognized by breed registries. Poodles are active and intelligent, and are particularly able to learn from humans. Poodles tend to live 10–18 years, with smaller varieties tending to live longer than larger ones.
A mongrel, mutt, or mixed-breed dog is a dog that does not belong to one officially recognized breed, including those that result from intentional breeding. Although the term mixed-breed dog is sometimes preferred, many mongrels have no known purebred ancestors.
A kennel club is an organization for canine affairs that concerns itself with the breeding, showing and promotion of more than one breed of dog. Kennel clubs became popular in the mid 19th century. All-encompassing kennel clubs are also referred to as 'all-breed clubs', although "all" means only those breeds that they have decided to recognize, and "breed" means purebred dogs, not including dog hybrids and crossbreeds or mixed-breed dogs. A club that handles only one breed is known as a breed club.
Dog crossbreeds, sometimes called designer dogs, are dogs which have been intentionally bred from two or more recognized dog breeds. They are not dogs with no purebred ancestors, but are not otherwise recognised as breeds in their own right, and do not necessarily breed true.
A crossbreed is an organism with purebred parents of two different breeds, varieties, or populations. Crossbreeding, sometimes called "designer crossbreeding", is the process of breeding such an organism. While crossbreeding is used to maintain health and viability of organisms, irresponsible crossbreeding can also produce organisms of inferior quality or dilute a purebred gene pool to the point of extinction of a given breed of organism.
Bull and terrier was a common name for crossbreeds between bulldogs and terriers in the early 1800s. Other names included half-and-halfs and half-breds. It was a time in history when, for thousands of years, dogs were classified by use or function, unlike the modern pets of today that were bred to be conformation show dogs and family pets. Bull and terrier crosses were originally bred to function as fighting dogs for bull- and bear-baiting, and other popular blood sports during the Victorian era. The sport of bull baiting required a dog with attributes such as tenacity and courage, a wide frame with heavy bone, and a muscular, protruding jaw. By crossing bulldogs with various terriers from Ireland and Great Britain, breeders introduced "gameness and agility" into the hybrid mix.
Smaland Hound is a breed of dog that originated in Sweden in the 16th century. Thought to be the oldest scent hound breed native to Sweden, it was first recognized by the Swedish Kennel Club in 1921. They are the smallest of the Swedish hound breeds, and have black and tan markings similar to the rottweiler. Internationally, it is recognized by a number of kennel clubs and registries including the Fédération Cynologique Internationale and United Kennel Club. It is considered rare, even in its native Sweden where only around sixty puppies are registered each year.
The Austrian Black and Tan Hound is a medium sized scenthound originating in Austria and is used for tracking wounded game, most commonly hare, in high altitudes.
Dog types are broad categories of domestic dogs based on form, function, or style of work, lineage, or appearance. Some may be locally adapted dog types that may have the visual characteristics of a modern purebred dog. In contrast, modern dog breeds strictly adhere to long-established breed standards,[note 1] that began with documented foundation breeding stock sharing a common set of inheritable characteristics, developed by long-established, reputable kennel clubs that recognize the dog as a purebred.
The Chihuahua is a Mexican breed of toy dog. It is named for the Mexican state of Chihuahua and is among the smallest of all dog breeds. It is usually kept as a companion animal or for showing.
Purebred breeders are dog breeders that intentionally breed purebred dogs specifically to continue the lineage of certain breed characteristics in dogs by mating selected canines.
Svenska Kennelklubben is a Swedish organization dedicated to purebred dogs, and dog owners. It was formed on 13 December 1889 by a group of noblemen and hunters with the aim to maintain the capability of good hunting dogs. According to its charter, the goals of the organization are "to create interest in, and promote, the breeding of mentally and physically healthy purebred dogs that are adequate in terms of working and hunting and that have a favorable appearance".
↑ Pitulko, Vladimir V.; Kasparov, Aleksey K. (2017). "Archaeological dogs from the Early Holocene Zhokhov site in the Eastern Siberian Arctic". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 13: 491–515. Bibcode:2017JArSR..13..491P. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2017.04.003.
↑ Clutton-Brock, J., 1995. Origins of the dog: domestication and early history. In:Serpell, J. (Ed.), The Domestic Dog, its Evolution, Behaviour and Interactions with People. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 16-20
1 2 Wilcox, Bonnie; Walkowicz, Chris (March 1995). Atlas of Dog Breeds of the World (Print) (5thed.). Neptune City, NJ Lanham, MD: TFH Publications, Inc. p.912. ISBN978-0793812844.
1 2 3 American Kennel Club (2006). Complete Dog Book. Ballantine Books; 20 edition. ISBN978-0345476265.
↑ Clark, Annie Rodgers; Brace, Andrew H. (1995). The International Encyclopedia of Dogs. New York: Howell Book House. p.8. ISBN978-0-87605-624-0. In the strictest sense, dog breeds date back only to the last couple of decades of the nineteenth century, or to more recent decades in this (the twentieth) century but distinct types of dogs have existed centuries earlier.
↑ Boyko, Adam R.; Quignon, Pascale; Li, Lin; Schoenebeck, Jeffrey J.; Degenhardt, Jeremiah D.; Lohmueller, Kirk E.; Zhao, Keyan; Brisbin, Abra; Parker, Heidi G.; Vonholdt, Bridgett M.; Cargill, Michele; Auton, Adam; Reynolds, Andy; Elkahloun, Abdel G.; Castelhano, Marta; Mosher, Dana S.; Sutter, Nathan B.; Johnson, Gary S.; Novembre, John; Hubisz, Melissa J.; Siepel, Adam; Wayne, Robert K.; Bustamante, Carlos D.; Ostrander, Elaine A. (2010). "A Simple Genetic Architecture Underlies Morphological Variation in Dogs". PLOS Biology. 8 (8): e1000451. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000451. PMC2919785. PMID20711490. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
1 2 Parker, H. G.; Kim, L. V.; Sutter, N. B.; Carlson, S; Lorentzen, T. D.; Malek, T. B.; Johnson, G. S.; Defrance, H. B.; Ostrander, E. A.; Kruglyak, L (2004). "Genetic Structure of the Purebred Domestic Dog". Science. 304 (5674): 1160–4. Bibcode:2004Sci...304.1160P. doi:10.1126/science.1097406. PMID15155949. S2CID43772173.
1 2 3 vonHoldt, Bridgett; Lohmueller, Kirk E.; Han, Eunjung; Parker, Heidi G.; Quignon, Pascale; Degenhardt, Jeremiah D.; Boyko, Adam R.; Earl, Dent A.; Auton, Adam; Reynolds, Andy; Bryc, Kasia; Brisbin, Abra; Knowles, James C.; Mosher, Dana S.; Spady, Tyrone C.; Elkahloun, Abdel; Geffen, Eli; Pilot, Malgorzata; Jedrzejewski, Wlodzimierz; Greco, Claudia; Randi, Ettore; Bannasch, Danika; Wilton, Alan; Shearman, Jeremy; Musiani, Marco; Cargill, Michelle; Jones, Paul G.; Qian, Zuwei; Huang, Wei; etal. (17 March 2010). "Genome-wide SNP and haplotype analyses reveal a rich history underlying dog domestication". Nature. 464 (7290): 898–902. Bibcode:2010Natur.464..898V. doi:10.1038/nature08837. PMC3494089. PMID20237475.
↑ Twiti, William (1977). Danielsson, B.; Cynegetica Anglica (eds.). The Art of Hunting 1. Stockholm Studies in English XXXVII. Translated by Danielsson, B.; Cynegetica Anglica. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell Int.
↑ The Master of Game, by Edward, second Duke of York: ed. Baillie-Grohman, William.1st Ed. London: 1904 Ballantine, Hanson & Co Folio, 302pp. 52 pl
↑ Edward, of Norwich; Baillie-Grohman, William A. (William Adolph); Baillie-Grohman, F. (Florence); Roosevelt, Theodore; Gaston III Phebus, Count of Foix (1 January 1909). The master of game: the oldest English book on hunting. London: Chatto & Windus.
↑ Berners, Juliana (1975) [Facsimile of 1486 original]. English hawking and hunting in the Boke of St. Albans: a facsimile edition of sigs. a2-f8 of the Boke of St. Albans (1486) / by Rachel Hands. Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-811715-9.
↑ Donna L. Morden; Seranne, Ann; Wendell J. Sammet; Gasow, Julia (2004). The joy of breeding your own show dog. New York, N.Y: Howell Book House. ISBN978-0-7645-7302-6.
↑ Bennett, Laura (10 December 2007). "Pet Industry Trends for 2008". smallbiztrends.com. Archived from the original on 4 July 2008. 2008 will see the rapid growth of the puppy farm crossbreeds to take advantage of the inflated prices people are paying for these dogs.
↑ Caesar, Ed (8 March 2007). "Hounded out: Fur and loathing in the dog world". The Independent. the stampede to acquire one (designer dog) has become so furious that puppies now sell for as much as £2,000.
↑ "Designer Dogs are the Rage". designerdoggies.com. Archived from the original on 4 July 2008. the Beagle is one of the lowest priced purebred dogs, yet the Puggle often sells for much more than the purebred Pug.
↑ Csányi, Vilmos (2005). If Dogs Could Talk. Translated by Richard E. Quandt (First Americaned.). New York: North Point Press. pp.285–286. ISBN978-0-86547-686-8.
↑ Morris, Desmond (2008). "Feral dogs". Dogs: The Ultimate Dictionary of over 1,000 Dog Breeds (First Paperbacked.). Vermont: Tralfalgar Square. pp.696–697. ISBN978-1-57076-410-3. The mongrel is not a true breed, but it is certainly a common category of domestic dog. It has been estimated that, worldwide, there are 150 million of them."
↑ Witiak, Dr. Gene (2004). True Confessions of a Veterinarian. Glenbridge Publishing Ltd. p.11. ISBN978-0-944435-54-0. Canines of unknown lineage used to be termed mongrels—how demeaning! Over time, the term 'mixed breed' was preferred.
↑ White, Kay (1997). Book of the Mongrel. HarperCollins.
↑ Sponenberg, D. Phillip (18 May 2000). "Genetic Resources and Their Conservation". In Bowling, Ann T.; Ruvinsky, Anatoly (eds.). The Genetics of the Horse. Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK: CABI Publishing. pp.392–393. ISBN978-0-85199-429-1. Retrieved 28 September 2014.
↑ Coppinger, Raymond & Lorna Coppinger. Dogs. Scribner 2001, ISBN0-684-85530-5, Chapter 3, "Natural Breeds", p. 85. "Natural breeds can arise locally with no human interaction"
Further reading
Alderton, David (September 2008). Encyclopedia of Dogs (Hardcover). Bath: Parragon Inc. p.384. ISBN978-1407524382.
Coile, D. Caroline (1 April 2005). Encyclopedia of Dog Breeds: Profiles of More than 150 Breeds (2nded.). Barron's Educational Series, Incorporated. p.368. ISBN9780764157004.
De Prisco, Andrew; Johnson, James B. (1993). Canine Lexicon. T. F. H. Publications. p.886. ISBN978-3-929545-60-9.
De Vito, Dominique (1 September 2005). World Atlas of Dog Breeds (Print) (6thed.). Neptune City, NJ Lanham, MD: TFH Publications, Inc. Distributed in the U.S. to the Bookstore and library trade by National Book Network. p.960. ISBN978-0793806560.
DK Publishing (15 July 2013). The Dog Encyclopedia (Hardcover) (1sted.). DK Adult. p.360. ISBN978-1465408440.
Wilcox, Bonnie; Walkowicz, Chris (March 1995). Atlas of Dog Breeds of the World (Print) (5thed.). Neptune City, NJ Lanham, MD: TFH Publications, Inc. Distributed in the U.S. to the Bookstore and library trade by National Book Network. p.912. ISBN978-0793812844.
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