Athletic former college football star Stewart Graff is arguing with his wife Remy after she fakes another suicide attempt when a mild earthquake jolts Los Angeles. Furious, Graff leaves for work, stopping to visit Denise Marshall, a part-time actress and widow of a co-worker who he assigned to the project that accidentally killed him. Feeling obligated to help her and Corry, her ten-year-old son, Graff brings the boy an autographed football from his college days, and helps Denise rehearse her lines for an upcoming film shoot.
Officer Lew Slade chases a car thief, when intercepted by a rival deputy from a neighboring district when he crosses jurisdictional lines. Already enemies with a history of antagonism, Slade hits the deputy, resulting in his suspension. Disheartened, Slade heads to a bar.
At the California Seismological Institute (CSI), junior seismologist, Walter Russell, has been studying the results of field research conducted by Dr. Frank Adams as well as that from the earlier tremors and makes the hypothesis that Los Angeles will suffer a major earthquake within the next two days. Head seismologist Dr. Stockle and associate Dr. Johnson are initially skeptical, but they are convinced when more tremors occur later that day, one of which kills Adams and his assistant when a trench in which they were working close to a fault line collapses. Stockle alerts the mayor, who, fearful of the social and political consequences, decides to tell the Governor of California to alert only the National Guard and police as a precaution.
In a vacant lot, motorcycle daredevil, Miles Quade, and his manager and mechanic, Sal Amici, have set up a dangerous stunt track, hoping to impress a Las Vegas promoter, so he will book their act at a hotel. Sal's sister, Rosa Amici, is unconvinced that the stunt will work, fears that Miles will be injured in the attempt and refuses to help promote it.
Grocery store manager, Jody Joad, who is attracted to Rosa, is a member of a National Guard unit being called up, and he heads home to change into his uniform. His housemates harass him for having posters of male bodybuilders on his wall, using homosexual slurs.
Another small tremor cancels Denise's film shoot for the day, so she goes to meet her friend, Barbara, a secretary at Graff's engineering firm. Graff bumps into Denise in the building's lobby. The pair go back to her house and make love for the first time. Graff then asks Denise to come to Oregon with him, and bring Corry, while he works on a hydroelectric dam project that summer.
Graff's boss and father-in-law, Sam Royce, later offers Stewart the company presidency. Stewart calls Denise to say he cannot see her that evening, and she tells him she wants to go to Oregon with him. Conflicted between the relationship and the promotion, Graff nevertheless decides to accept Sam's offer. At Sam's office, Graff is stunned to find Remy, who convinced Sam to offer the promotion as a bribe to save their marriage. Angered, Graff admits the affair with Denise, deciding to end their marriage.
An earthquake measuring 9.9 on the Richter Scale strikes then destroys much of Los Angeles. Sam and others are trapped on the upper floors of the skyscraper, which catches fire, due to the escape stairs collapsing and the elevator being destroyed by the tremor. After many fall to their deaths through the chasm, Sam rigs a firehose to a chair and lowers the rest of his staff down one at a time. Before he can descend himself, Sam suffers a heart attack, and Graff climbs up to rescue him before the firehose snaps.
Corry has been catapulted from a collapsing footbridge into the Los Angeles River and become entangled with electric cables from a fallen pole. Denise finds him unconscious and climbs down to save him. Unable to climb back out, she hails a passing truck, driven by Miles and Sal. After saving them, they meet up with Slade, who knows Miles and Sal (after arresting both a year prior during a biker riot), and commandeers the truck to use as an ambulance, while Miles takes his motorcycle to search for Rosa. Slade stays in the area with additional injured, while Sal drives the rest to a makeshift field hospital being set up at the Wilson Plaza, a combination office building and underground mall and parking structure that survived the earthquake.
Rosa is mistakenly arrested for looting by a National Guard unit led by Jody. He orders her to stay inside a secluded store for what he says is her safety. More troops arrive with Jody's housemates, who are also being detained for looting. To the shock of his troops, Jody taunts then murders them for the ridicule he has endured.
The simulated collapse of Mulholland Dam – and the subsequent deluge – forms the film's climax.
Graff drives his co-workers to the Wilson Plaza, dropping off Remy, Barbara, and Sam. To Remy's protestations, Graff leaves to search for Denise and Corry. Sam is attended to by Dr. Jim Vance, but he dies shortly thereafter.
Graff's car is one of the few surviving vehicles from the quake, and is commandeered by Slade as he drives past. Unable to work the manual transmission, Slade makes Graff drive, while they take the last of the injured back to Wilson Plaza. En route, they come across Jody and his unit, who has quarantined the only passage through. As Jody threatens to shoot them, Rosa emerges from the store, screaming to Slade for help. Facing an assault rifle, Slade and Stewart turn around and drive away. However, Slade returns on foot and gets the jump on Jody who is about to rape Rosa, shooting him and rescuing her.
An aftershock destroys Wilson Plaza before Graff, Slade and Rosa arrive there. After Barbara says she last saw Denise, Royce, and Remy in the 3rd level basement garage, Graff tells an Army Corps of Engineers Colonel that there may be survivors trapped in an underground garage, which would be accessible via a parallel storm drain. Against the Colonel's advice, Graff and Slade use a jackhammer to drill through to the garage and find 70 survivors, including Denise, Corry, Remy and Dr. Vance.
The damaged Mulholland Dam gives way, flooding the storm drains miles away. Denise, Corry and Dr. Vance make it up a ladder to safety, but just as Remy climbs up some rungs, she is knocked off into the flooded sewer. Graff looks up at Denise waiting for him at the top of the manhole, but hearing Remy's wailing, he realizes he cannot abandon Remy. Graff swims and reaches her, but overcome by the rushing water, both of them, along with others, are swept away and drown. Slade, having held on to the ladder during the flood, searches in vain for Graff, but escapes up to the street.
In tears, Denise returns to Corry, who has regained consciousness. Slade and Rosa survey Los Angeles' ruins. Stunned survivors mill about the devastated landscape while the fires burn on in the darkness.
In the wake of the tremendous success of the 1970 disaster-suspense film Airport, Universal Studios began working with executive producer Bernard Donnenfeld and director John Sturges to come up with a new idea that would work within the same "disaster-suspense" genre. Inspiration came in the form of the San Fernando earthquake of February 1971.[4] Universal was intrigued by the idea of creating a disaster on film that would not be confined to an airliner, but rather take place over a large area.
Donnenfeld and Sturges left the project early in 1972, and Universal executive producer Jennings Lang took over development, bringing Mark Robson aboard as producer and director.
Development
Lang scored a coup when he was able to sign screenwriter Mario Puzo, who was paid $125,000 to write the first draft during the summer of 1972. Puzo, fresh from the success of his novel and film, The Godfather, delivered the draft script in August. However, Puzo's detailed and expansive script would have necessitated a larger production budget, as the action and multiple story arcs were spread over a vast geographical area in Los Angeles. Universal was faced with either cutting the script or increasing the projected budget. Puzo's involvement with Earthquake was short-lived, as Paramount Pictures was anxious to begin development with the followup to The Godfather, The Godfather Part II in early 1973. Because Puzo's services contractually were obligated to the sequel, he was unable to continue any further work on Earthquake.
The Earthquake script sat at Universal Studios for a short period, but was brought back to life by the huge success of the 20th Century Fox hit The Poseidon Adventure, released in December 1972. Fueled by that film's enormous box-office receipts, Universal Studios put pre-production on Earthquake back into high gear, hiring writer George Fox to continue work with Puzo's first draft. Fox was principally a magazine writer and never had written a screenplay, so director Mark Robson worked with him to narrow the scope of the script to fit into the budgetary constraints. After 11 drafts, Earthquake went before the cameras in February 1974.[5] Since Robson was also tasked with producing such a technically complex film, Bernard Donnenfeld was brought back to co-produce, but was uncredited.[5]
Budgeted at US$6,675,125, Earthquake immediately found itself in a race against the clock with the bigger-budgeted disaster film, The Towering Inferno, which was being produced by Irwin Allen and financed, for the first time, by two studios (20th Century Fox and Warner Bros.).
Casting
While The Towering Inferno featured a larger "all star" cast,[lower-alpha 1] Universal was able to land Charlton Heston in the lead role for the sum of $600,000, plus a percentage of the profits. Rounding out the top billing were Ava Gardner (who co-starred with Heston in 1963's 55 Days at Peking), George Kennedy, Lorne Greene, and Geneviève Bujold. Richard Roundtree (riding a wave of success from the Shaft film series) was brought in after filming had already started, filling the part of an Evel Knievel-like motorcycle stuntman. Former evangelical preacher Marjoe Gortner was hired as the antagonist, Jody. Relative unknown Victoria Principal was hired to play the sister of Roundtree's business partner, Sal, played by veteran actor Gabriel Dell.
Walter Matthau was cast in a cameo role, for which he was credited as "Walter Matuschanskayasky". Executive Producer Jennings Lang, who had worked with Matthau on the previous year's Charley Varrick, was able to convince him to appear in the role (originally to be filled by veteran actor Harry Morgan). The unpaid cameo - and his credited name - were part of the deal.[lower-alpha 2]
Set design
Production necessitated the complete re-dressing of the entire Universal Studios "New York Street" backlot in order to simulate the catastrophic earthquake of the title. Along with a clever use of miniatures of actual buildings, matte paintings, and full-scale sets (some of which were placed on rollers for a shaking effect), Earthquake used a new technique developed especially for the film: a "shaker mount" camera system that mimicked the effects of an earthquake by moving the entire camera body several inches side to side, versus simple shaking the camera on a stationary tripod, for a more realistic motion.[7] This camera mount was used for most exterior scenes or other instances where shooting on location.
Stunts
Extensive use of highly trained stunt artists for the most dangerous scenes involving high falls, dodging falling debris, and flood sequences, set a Hollywood record for the most stunt artists involved in any film production up until that time: 141.[8] Major stunt sequences in the film required careful choreography between the stunt artists and behind-the-scenes stunt technicians who were responsible for triggering full-scale effects, such as falling debris. Timing was critical, since some rigged effects involved dropping six ton chunks of reinforced concrete in order to flatten cars, with stunt performers only a few feet away. In other scenarios, some stunt artists were required to fall sixty feet onto large air bags from the rafters of Universal's largest stage (Stage 12) – for which they were paid the sum of $500.[9] While every precaution was taken to prevent injuries, several did occur during filming. One stunt person suffered a concussion during the flood sequence (the accident was used in the film), and several stunt artists were injured during the elevator crash scene, since the set was designed to collapse upon them. Multiple stunt artists were injured during a scene involving an escalator as well.
"Sensurround"
Universal Studios and Jennings Lang wanted Earthquake to be an "event film", something that would draw audiences into the theatre multiple times. After several ideas were tossed about (which included bouncing styrofoam faux "debris" over audience members' heads), Universal's sound department came up with a process called "Sensurround" – a series of large speakers made by Cerwin-Vega powered by BGW amplifiers, that would pump in sub-audible "infra bass" sound waves at 120 decibels (equivalent to a jet airplane at takeoff), giving the viewer the sensation of an earthquake. The process was tested in several theatres around the United States prior to the film's release, yielding various results. A famous example is Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood, California, where the "Sensurround" cracked the plaster in the ceiling. The same theatre premiered Earthquake three months later – with a newly installed net over the audience to catch any falling debris – to tremendous success.[10]
The "Sensurround" process proved to be a large audience draw, but not without generating a fair share of controversy. When the film premiered in Chicago, Illinois, the head of the building and safety department demanded the system be turned down, as he was afraid it would cause structural damage. In Billings, Montana, a knick-knack shop next door to a theatre using the system lost part of its inventory when items from several shelves were thrown to the floor when the system was cued during the quake scenes.[citation needed]
The 2006 Universal Studios Home Entertainment DVD release features the original "Sensurround" 3.1 audio track, duplicating the original theatrical "Sensurround" track (but oddly in mono directed to the front 3 speakers rather than the original stereo mix), but no actual 'rumble' generator was used, and only the two control tones that activated the generator can be heard. In addition, the film's original soundtrack was remixed in Surround Sound 5.1 which was simply a tag as once again only the control tones feature on the track.
Music
John Williams' music for Earthquake was the second of his trio of scores for large-scale disaster films, having previously scored The Poseidon Adventure and following with The Towering Inferno.[12] Williams scored both Earthquake and The Towering Inferno in the summer of 1974, both scores showing similarities to one another (notably Earthquake's theme and The Towering Inferno's love theme sharing the same eight-note melody, albeit in different keys). The music of the song "C'est si Bon" by Henri Betti is played on the guitar in the middle of the film.
On December 10, 2019, La-La Land Records released a fully remastered and expanded version of Williams' music, as part of the Disaster Movie Soundtrack Collection, which includes the remastered expansions of Williams's music for this film, as well as The Towering Inferno and The Poseidon Adventure.
Audience preview and re-edits
After an October 2, 1974 test screening in Joplin, Missouri, Universal opted to cut 30 minutes from the film, notably from the pre-quake sequences, at the cost of some of the dramatic flow. This included a narration sequence about the San Andreas fault and an impending catastrophic earthquake that would occur in either Los Angeles or San Francisco. This scene was filmed and was set to be shown before the opening title credits (although it was removed at the last minute, it was eventually included as the opening sequence of the NBC television edit for the September, 1976 broadcast premiere). Also excised were lengthy scenes of Remy and Graff arguing at the beginning of the film. After Remy's faked suicide attempt, Dr. Vance (Lloyd Nolan) inadvertently informs his old friend Graff that Remy had an abortion two years prior (he was told it was a miscarriage). Angered because he wanted children, Graff storms off. There was more of Slade's leaving the police station, and footage of Rosa's leaving the market was shot as well. She was filmed waiting for a bus and being offered a lift from a man on a motorcycle (this footage eventually was used in the film's television cut). Just before the earthquake, Stewart and Remy had a final fight (in front of Stewart's car) that was deleted as well. During the earthquake, there was a scene of a nearby lumberyard's falling apart, and this was removed from the final cut.
Other scenes were shot to wrap up many characters' stories after the earthquake, but were deleted from the final print: Walt Russell and Dr. Stockle – whose fates are undetermined after the quake in the theatrical release – were shown alive in the seismology laboratory post-quake. They were shown finding the earthquake's magnitude to be 9.9 on the Richter scale. The film's final scene was significantly re-edited, and originally showed Denise walking up to Lew Slade as he emerges from the manhole, and asks if Stewart had survived; upon hearing of his death, she walks over to Corry who has regained consciousness.
The elevator scene
A scene involving an elevator loaded with passengers plummeting 25 floors to the ground during the earthquake is one of the film's more notorious sequences, mainly for how its conclusion was depicted. As originally scripted, the occupants were pressed to the ceiling of the elevator as it fell down the shaft, and then dropped to the floor when the elevator crashes to the bottom. To film this, an elevator set was built suspended several feet over the stage floor, allowing for the dropping of the set (with the stunt people inside). The scene was filmed several times, with several stunt people involved. Copious amounts of stage blood were rigged to spray the stunt people inside the elevator set with blood when the set came crashing to the ground. After several tries over two separate filming days weeks apart (the break in filming was an attempt to perfect the mechanical effects involved), and with unsatisfactory results, the decision was made to edit the scene with an "animated blood" effect to be added in post production. The optical effect was superimposed over a still frame of part of the unusable footage, resulting in the "cartoonish" nature of the shot. The television version removed the animated blood sequence.[citation needed]
Reception
Released in the United States on November 15, 1974, Earthquake ranked third among the high-grossing film of the year; The Towering Inferno was the highest.[13]
Box office
Earthquake grossed $1,306,271 in its opening weekend from 62 theatres in 51 cities in the United States and Canada.[14] It eventually grossed $79.7 million in the United States and Canada ($450.5 million, adjusted for inflation in 2023 dollars) being one of the highest-grossing films of the time.[15][16][17] Internationally, it grossed $87.7 million,[18] including ¥3 billion ($10 million) in Japan,[19] bringing its worldwide gross to $167.4 million.
Critical response
At its release, critics generally acknowledged the special effects in Earthquake while discounting other aspects. Without either panning or praising the film, Nora Sayre of the New York Times wrote that it was an improvement on Airport 1975 and observed, "The impulse to shout advice to the screen—get out! go away! don't enter that building—is quite powerful, so this does rank as a participatory movie."[20]Judith Crist wrote in New York Magazine that "the nonsense is bearable for the spectacle. And ... here we have a feast of feats of destruction."[3]Pauline Kael wrote "The picture is swill, but it isn't a cheat; it's an entertaining marathon of Grade-A destruction effects".[21]Roger Ebert criticized the "witless Earthquake" for "regarding [the effects] with awe".[22]Gene Siskel gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four and wrote the special effects were "terrific" but identified a basic problem with the story: "With a Poseidon Adventure or an Airport the ending is clear– people are saved ultimately thru their own or somebody else's enterprise. But with an earthquake, the final solution is out of one's hands, anyone's hands– even Allstate's. If the tremors don't stop, then everybody'll die; if they do, then only a few people will die. End of story."[23]Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times wrote that the Sensurround vibrations "succeed very nicely in making themselves felt as well as heard and they set up an anxiety which makes watching 'Earthquake' a very ambivalent experience for anyone who, so to speak, has been there before."[24] Gary Arnold of The Washington Post wrote "Thanks to Sensurround, 'Earthquake' figures to be the gimmick hit of 1974. Without the gimmick, it would be difficult to distinguish this perfunctory, mediocre piece of storytelling from Universal's other disaster vehicle, Airport 1975."[25]
On review aggregatorRotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 44% from 32 reviews with an average score of 4.90 out of 10. The website's critical consensus reads: "The destruction of Los Angeles is always a welcome sight, but Earthquake offers little besides big actors slumming through crumbling sets."[26] Metacritic, who uses a weighted average, has assigned the film a score of 56/100 based on 6 critic reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[27]Leonard Maltin gave the film a "BOMB" rating, stating "[the] title tells the story in hackneyed disaster epic ... Marjoe as a sex deviate and Gardner as Lorne Greene's daughter tie for film's top casting honors."[28] Gardner was only 8 years younger than Lorne Greene.
For the film's television premiere on Sunday, September 26, 1976 on NBC, additional footage was added to expand the film's running time so it could be aired over two nights, as part of NBC's promotion of "The Big Event" fall premiere series (the second night aired on Sunday, October 3, 1976).[33]
According to internal memos from Universal Studios, both Jennings Lang and Mark Robson were upset that Universal and NBC had agreed to alter the original film for its premiere broadcast, with Robson initially refusing to participate (but eventually relenting to be a "consultant" to the editing process). Editor Gene Palmer was hired to direct the additional footage, with a script provided by an uncredited Francesca Turner. Robson petitioned the Directors Guild of America that it was specified he was the director of the "theatrical version only" (which was granted).
While inserting approximately 30 minutes of unused footage shot for the theatrical version was considered, this "television version" made virtually no use of material edited out of the theatrical release[citation needed] (save the introductory sequence describing earthquakes in California on the San Andreas fault, and one brief scene featuring Victoria Principal and Reb Brown), but rather incorporated new footage filmed nearly two years after the original using two of the original film's stars, Marjoe Gortner and Victoria Principal, as well as Jesse Vint and Michael Richardson (reprising their film roles of Marjoe Gortner's taunting roommates), expanding on the original storyline from the theatrical film. Editing and re-recorded dialogue helped integrate this expansion into the original film. A short scene involving Richard Roundtree's character, Miles Quade, was scripted, but never filmed. An entirely new storyline shot specifically for the television version was that of a young married couple (Debralee Scott and Sam Chew) flying to Los Angeles on an airplane. The husband seeks a job with the Royce Construction company of the film (in fact, hoping to work with Charlton Heston's character, Stewart Graff), while his wife has the eerily accurate ability to see the future with tarot cards. Their airliner attempts to land at Los Angeles International Airport as the titular earthquake hits, and the airliner makes a touch-and-go landing on a runway that is breaking up, diverting to San Francisco. Throughout the remainder of the television version, the film cuts back to the couple as they discuss their future together, and the husband's wish to return to Los Angeles and help rebuild the city.
The "Sensurround" audio of the original film was simulcast in FM stereo in the Los Angeles and New York markets. This theoretically allowed the home viewer (with the properly equipped sound system) to experience a similar effect as in the theater.
The Hollywood attraction opened in March 1989 as part of the Studio Tour tram ride. The tram enters a sound stage, the interior designed to look like a San Francisco underground BART station, whereupon a two-and-a-half-minute simulation of an 8.3 earthquake takes place, featuring a gas truck falling into the station, a runaway train and a flood.[34][lower-alpha 3]
The Florida attraction opened in June 1990. It began with an introductory film on the making of Earthquake with Charlton Heston appearing to explain the special effects, followed by a live demonstration based on the film with audience participation. The attraction culminated in a simulated 8.3 earthquake aboard an underground train at Embarcadero Station in San Francisco.[35][dead link] In the fall of 2002, the pre-show was changed to a more generic "magic of making movies" theme, with slight modifications which included mentioning special effects used in other films besides Earthquake. The Florida attraction officially closed on November 5, 2007, and reopened several months later as "Disaster!: A Major Motion Picture Ride...Starring You!."[34]
Stock footage
Many scenes from the film, especially those featuring the destruction of Los Angeles, have appeared in other productions, often those of Universal Studios itself (effectively allowing Universal to recoup some of the expenses associated with filming the costly special effects). Some examples include:
Damnation Alley: In this 1977 film, the earth shifts from its axis after a full-scale nuclear war. Flood scenes from the dam burst in Earthquake are used to help depict the earth returning to its correct axis.[citation needed]
Quantum Leap: The episode "Disco Inferno" has Sam Beckett leaped in as a film stuntman. One of his jobs is on the set of Earthquake, where he is the character seen hanging from a piece of debris whom Sam Royce (Lorne Greene's character) attempts to save, but Beckett loses his grip and falls.[clarification needed]
Galactica 1980: In the episode "Galactica Discovers Earth", in a "computer simulation" of a devastating Cylon attack on Los Angeles, which used different extended takes of what was shown in the original film, composited with newly-filmed elements for the series. This footage was in turn shown in the Tom Petty music video for the song "You Got Lucky".[citation needed]
V: The Final Battle: Footage from the sequence featuring the collapse of the Hollywood dam was reused during the destruction of the Visitors water pumping station.[citation needed]
The Incredible Hulk: In the first-season episode "Earthquakes Happen", several building collapse scenes, the collapsing freeway overpass scene, the collapsing Spanish bells, the sliding and falling stilt houses, and the collapsing high tension wires and parts of the wooden foot bridge scenes were reused with slightly zoomed or slightly reoriented focus to minimize association with Earthquake.[citation needed]
Scarface (1983) has a scene where Tony Montana is going to buy cocaine from some drug dealers, and the TV set in the motel room shows the scene in this film where the graduate assistant is explaining his earthquake theory to the director of the Seismology Institute.[citation needed]
Scientific accuracy
The purported magnitude of the earthquake in the film (9.9 on the Richter Scale) would make it the largest ever recorded, eclipsing the record set by the actual Chilean Earthquake of 1960 (9.5 on the Richter Scale). However, such huge earthquakes can only be generated by "megathrust" faults or asteroid strikes. The numerous faults in California, particularly the San Andreas (the fault implied to have generated the titular earthquake in the film), are the "strike-slip" type, which historically have rarely produced tremors higher than 8.3 on the Richter Scale in recorded history.
↑ Matthau himself invented the name "Matuschanskayasky" as well as the fiction that it was his birth name.[6]
↑ The San Francisco and BART setting was owed to the reputed setting of the Earthquake sequel that never materialized.[34]
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The 46th National Board of Review Awards were announced on December 25, 1974.
The Great Los Angeles Earthquake is a 1990 American made-for-television disaster film about a massive earthquake that strikes Los Angeles, California. The movie stars Joanna Kerns in the movie's lead role, seismologist Clare Winslow, who tries to warn city leaders of the possibility that a powerful earthquake may strike southern California. The film aired on NBC on November 11–12, 1990.
Disaster!: A Major Motion Picture Ride...Starring You! was a dark ride attraction at Universal Studios Florida. Set on a soundstage of a fictitious movie company, Disaster! was based on the park's former Earthquake: The Big One ride, which comically illustrates how special effects are filmed for use in movies. The attraction's climax cast the riders as movie extras for a movie final scene involving an earthquake in a subway station. Using high-speed editing techniques, the riders got to see themselves in the form of a movie trailer that included film sequences shot throughout the attraction's pre-show and main ride.
Paul Stader was an American actor, assistant director and stuntman.
Carl Kress is an American film editor. He won an Academy Award in the category Best Film Editing for the film The Towering Inferno.
↑ Mikkelson, Barbara and David (October 19, 2005). "Walter Matthau". Snopes. Archived from the original on January 22, 2020. Retrieved February 7, 2015.
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