Environmental impact of the Russian invasion of Ukraine

Last updated

Environmental impact of the Russian invasion of Ukraine
Battle of Bakhmut 1.jpg
No-man's-land at the battle of Bakhmut, 26 November 2022
StatusOngoing
Genre Ecocide
Date(s)February 24, 2022 (2022-02-24)
Country Ukraine, Russia
Years active2
Founder Russia

The Russian invasion of Ukraine has led to ongoing widespread and possibly serious and long-term environmental damage. The Ukrainian government, journalists and international observers describe the damage as ecocide.

Contents

Explosions inflict toxic damage along with physical destruction. Every explosion releases particles of toxic substances such as lead, mercury and depleted uranium into the environment. When ingested, explosives like TNT, DNT, and RDX, cause illness.[ not verified in body ]

Fights in heavily industrialised areas may lead to technological disasters, such as spills of tailings and fuel, that poison vast territories not only in Ukraine, but also in Europe and Russia. Destroyed buildings may release carcinogenic dust that remains hazardous for decades.[ not verified in body ] Heavy metals and chemicals may penetrate underground waters and poison water sources, killing life in rivers and water bodies. Destruction of civil infrastructure has already left more than four million people without access to clean drinking water. Soils in some areas of military conflict are no longer fit for agriculture, because plants draw up and accumulate the pollutants.

War also increases the risk of nuclear accidents. Power shortages at nuclear plants and fights in the vicinity of stations may result in disasters such as Chernobyl and Fukushima. Military emissions of CO2 reach hundreds of million tonnes and undermine the goals of the Paris Agreement.[ citation needed ]

More than 12,000 square kilometres (4,600 sq mi) of Ukraine's nature reserves have become a war zone. Populations of rare endemic and migrant species have already suffered great losses, and birds have been forced to abandon nests and change their usual migration routes. The efforts of decades-long conservation projects have been ruined.

Estimating the total environmental damage inflicted by the war is not possible until it ends. According to preliminary data, it will take Ukraine's nature at least 15 years to recover.

War damage to nature

A wildfire due to shelling in Mykolaiv Oblast, 9 August 2022 Forest in Mykolaiv Oblast after Russian shelling, 2022-08-09 (01).jpg
A wildfire due to shelling in Mykolaiv Oblast, 9 August 2022

Environmental damage caused by war can last for centuries. [1] According to studies, soils near Ypres in Belgium still contain more than 2,000 tonnes (4.4 million pounds) of copper after World War I. In Iran, soils are still contaminated with mercury and chlorine after fights during the Iranian Revolution. [2] The First and Second Chechen War left more than 30% of soils in Chechnya unsuitable for agriculture. [3] [4]

Depending on soil pH and access of oxygen and water, it takes from 100 to 300 years for ammunition to degrade. [1] Destroyed cities pose a huge ecological threat because undetonated bombs are buried in debris, [a] ruined houses release cancerogenic dust (sometimes for decades), [6] and millions of tonnes of rubble are almost impossible to recycle. [7] Asbestos may be released into the air from the rubble. [8] Forced mass relocation of people overloads the infrastructure of host regions. Refugee camps accumulate waste and have almost no recycling facilities. [9] [10] [11]

In 2014, it cost approximately €2.50 to plant a mine in Ukraine, while it cost more than €900 to clear that mine. [12] Lots of research is required to fully estimate the environmental damage caused by the Russian invasion, although this is impractical until hostilities cease. [13] As of June 2022, Ukraine's Ministry of Environment estimates the cost at €6.6 billion. [14]

Direct pollution

After the first two weeks of hostilities, air monitoring in Kyiv showed pollutant concentrations 27 times higher than normal. [9] Explosions, destroyed armor and vehicles, burning and spilled fuel pollute air, water, and soils. [15] The explosion of every bomb releases particles of heavy metals, [16] formaldehydes, nitrous oxide, hydrogen cyanide, and toxic organic compounds. [17] These pollutants are spread by winds and underground waters, which is why the hazardous ecological impact of war will directly affect Russia and Europe. [18] The explosives release chemical compounds that are oxidized in air and may cause acid rain. They can 'burn' vegetation and respiratory organs of mammals (including humans). [17] [ medical citation needed ]

Around 95–97% of ammunition is lead. The rest is made of materials such as zinc, nickel, barium, manganese, copper and antimony, and sometimes depleted uranium. [19] Lead is highly toxic and highly ingestible, and enters the human body not only when people breathe, eat and drink, but also through skin and hair. Prolonged exposure to lead causes kidney failure, and even short-term contact affects the nervous system and induces encephalopathy, as well as anemia, loss of coordination and memory. Similar neurotoxic effects occur in animals. [20]

Particles of depleted uranium are 100 times smaller than leukocytes and easily bypass the blood-brain barrier, and are thus capable of reaching the olfactory nerves and disrupting cognitive processes directly. Antimony causes inflammation of cardiovascular, respiratory and digestive systems. Nickel also damages the immune system. Exposure to high concentrations of copper, manganese and zinc can have a poisonous effect and induce pneumonia, pulmonary fibrosis, and lethargy. [20] Microparticles of destroyed ammunition shells may enter water and penetrate human and animal bodies through the food chain. [17] [ medical citation needed ]

Explosives, such as TNT, DNT, and RDX, cause chemical pollution and induce acute intoxication and long-term mutagenic effects in people. TNT is easily absorbed through skin and mucous membranes. Depending on the dose, its cancerogenic effects can induce alopecia, anemia, liver failure, and cataracts, and change blood composition. Hexogen poisoning causes nausea and anemia, prolonged exposure leads to kidney and liver failure. DNT is also toxic, in high doses it can disrupt the cardiovascular system and provoke oncology. [21] The explosion of one BM-21 Grad releases more than 500 grams (18 oz) of sulfur that reacts with water and turns into sulfurous acid. War-damaged land is 'burned' with acid. [22]

According to the Pentagon, by July 2022 at least 1200 rockets and bombs had exploded in Ukraine. [13] In the first days of the invasion, the Russian army bombed ammunition depots located near urban areas. Toxic clouds raised by the massive explosions and fires covered residential districts and villages; severe damage to health of the locals may be the result. [23] [24] [25] The infamous 'Pančevo cancer' is an example of such exposure — a spike of oncology has been recorded among Pančevo 1999 bombing survivors. Many scientists[ who? ] are sure that toxic damage caused by hostilities is even more hazardous to the human population than explosions. [26] [ medical citation needed ]

According to Russian journalist Yulia Latynina, the toxic fuel of malfunctioning air-launched cruise missiles from Russian Tu-95 and Tu-160 bombers deployed over the Caspian Sea during the invasion caused the mass die-off of Caspian seals in 2022. According to Latynina, some missiles fail to launch properly due to their age and fell close to their launch point. [27] To avoid accidental failures over land, launches are made over water. [27] Since the start of the invasion several mass die-offs of Caspian seals have been recorded, such as in the spring of 2022 when, between 31 March and 2 May, 832 carcasses were found in Kazakhstan's Mangystau Region, and in the summer of that same year when 837 carcasses were found on Kazakhstan's coast. [27]

Bombing of industrial sites

Eastern Ukraine was a highly industrialized area, with more than 900 facilities and production centres, including coal mines, oil refineries, chemical labs and steel plants. [13] [28] [29] The Conflict and Environment Observatory (CEOBS) estimated that more than 10 million tonnes (22 billion pounds) of toxic waste and tailings are stored in this region. [29] [30] Direct hits and explosions result in leakages of hazardous materials that poison air, water, and soils. [31] Accidents at high-risk industrial sites can escalate with a domino effect and cause disastrous thermal, hydro, and chemical discharges. [32]

As of 1 April 2022, more than 36 attacks had been registered on fossil fuel infrastructure, 29 attacks on electricity stations, seven on water infrastructure, and six on nuclear sites. [16] More than 60 fires occurred at Ukraine's oil refineries by June 2022. [33] [34] Accidents at huge industrial enterprises such as Azovstal, Lysychansk Oil Refinery, or Sumykhimprom could lead to disastrous environmental damage. [35] However, Azovstal initiated a program of environmentally safe shutdown in the first week of the Russian invasion. Coke ovens were stopped, the temperature was lowered, and liquid glass was poured in to prevent the coking process from continuing and the coke oven gas to be released as intensively[ clarification needed ] as possible. [b] On 25 February, chemical reagents were disposed of. [37] [38] An attack on Lysychansk refinery ignited the 50,000-tonne (110-million-pound) tank of oil sludge, two reservoirs with 20,000 tonnes (44 million pounds) of petroleum, and a sulphur store. [39]

An explosion due to the shelling of a tank filled with nitric acid in Sievierodonetsk, 31 May 2022 Attack on the center of Severodonetsk by Russian forces.jpg
An explosion due to the shelling of a tank filled with nitric acid in Sievierodonetsk, 31 May 2022

The number of attacks on industrial centres caused international observers and the Ukrainian government to identify them as ecocide. For instance, on 21 March ammonia reservoirs at Sumykhimprom were hit. [40] The resulted leakage covered an area 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) in radius, and the people of Novoselitsy village were told to hide in shelters. [41] [42] [16] On 5 and 9 April, nitric acid tanks in Rubizhne were blown up: the police of the Donetsk People's Republic and the Ukrainian army blamed each other. [43] [44] On 4 April 2022, a Russian rocket was shot down in Kremenets Raion, and the debris fell onto a farm and hit reservoirs with organic fertilizers, causing leakage. Though the tanks were nearly empty, the spill was enough to poison the local river Ikva. A few days later, water sampling showed ammonia concentration at 163 times above[ clarification needed ] safe, and dead fish were reported on its banks. [45] [46] On 31 May, in Sievierodonetsk Raion a tank with nitric acid was blown up, and a chemical cloud forced locals to hide in shelters. [47] [48] [49] As of June 2022, Ukrainian observers registered more than 2000 cases of environmental damage caused by hostilities. [50]

Forced migration is another risk caused by the war, because without human control even out of service industrial sites may be hazardous. [2] Most plants and industrial sites in East Ukraine were built during the Soviet era, and that infrastructure is now significantly worn-out. For instance, at Dzerzhinsk phenol plant  [ ru ] there are two ponds of toxic waste, one of which has a dam that was identified as unstable in 2019. In case of a breach, 8 million tonnes (18 billion pounds) of chemical waste will pour onto the surrounding lands and the Zalizna river, poisoning water sources in the region, and reaching the Seversky Donets that flows into Russia. [6]

Coal mines throughout eastern Ukraine have deteriorated rapidly, [51] as active and expanded hostilities have made it difficult for maintenance projects to continue. The potential for pollution of ground and surface water throughout the entire Donbas region has been reported. When a mine is flooded, radionuclides and toxic substances contaminate underground waters, poisoning water sources of local residential areas. [c] [13] Eurocommission specialists registered at least 35 abandoned coal mines in Donbass, [2] including the YunKom mine which was used for a nuclear test in 1979. The waters of Komyshuvakha river turned orange in 2021 because of leakage from the abandoned Zolotoe mine. Risks of a human-made disaster caused by the Russian invasion are growing every day that the war continues. [53] [ better source needed ] Worst-case scenarios include pollution of the Azov sea with toxic waste. [54]

Carbon footprint of war

The carbon footprint of this war undermines efforts towards CO2 emissions reduction. [55] [56] [57] The first two years of the war have resulted in considerable releases of Greenhouse gas emissions, and many more may be released due to the need to rebuild destroyed infrastructure. Overall, it has been estimated to amounts to 175 million tonnes (390 billion pounds) in carbon dioxide equivalent. [58]

Nuclear threats

This section is an excerpt from Impact of the Russian invasion of Ukraine on nuclear power plants.[ edit ]

Ukraine is home to four nuclear power plants, as well as the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone, site of the 1986 Chernobyl disaster. [59] As of January 2024, both the Chernobyl and the Zaporizhzhia nuclear power plants saw battles during the war that resulted from the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. The invasion has prompted significant discussion about the status of the power plants, including fears of potential disasters, [60] and has also prompted debates about nuclear energy programmes in other European countries. [61]

Fires in the forests around Chernobyl between 24 February and 22 March Pozhezhi v lisakh ChAES.webp
Fires in the forests around Chernobyl between 24 February and 22 March

Damaged biologic systems

Fertile soils

Missile in a meadow in Luhansk Oblast Rocket from multiple rocket launcher in Luhansk Oblast (2022-04-26).jpg
Missile in a meadow in Luhansk Oblast
Fields in Kharkiv Oblast strewn with craters after the battles

Battles and shelling ruin fertile soils for a long time. The highly fertile chernozem, which made Ukraine one of the world's largest grain exporters, suffers from pollution with heavy metals, chemicals, lubricants, and spent fuel. Vegetation grown on contaminated land absorbs these pollutants and transfers them to humans via the food chain. [62] [3] According to a UN estimate, in 2022 in Donbass alone more than 530 hectares (1,300 acres) were rated areas of ecological catastrophe. [16]

Research indicates that chernozem is physically damaged by tanks and heavy vehicles: their weight makes the soil clump and stick together, and earthworms and other animals that normally stir up and aerate soil are scared off by the noise. Communities of soil microbes are reduced at least for several years. Wet soils need at least four years to recover from tank traffic. [3] Also, with the decrease of vegetation cover, pollutants penetrate easily and tend to go deeper into the ground. [63]

Ecologists also note that an abrupt suspension of agricultural use on fields leads to uncontrolled reproduction of mice and weeds. [64]

Water sources

A destroyed dam near Kozarovychi [uk] Ruinuvannia dambi v s.Kozarovichi (1).jpg
A destroyed dam near Kozarovychi  [ uk ]
The village of Demydiv after flooding Ruinuvannia dambi v s.Kozarovichi (3).jpg
The village of Demydiv after flooding

The Russia–Ukraine conflict has had a profound impact on water resources and water infrastructure. [65]

Rivers and water bodies are strategically important objects. The Dnieper, Donets, and Irpin serve as natural defences. The Black Sea also became a theatre of war. Destroyed and abandoned vehicles pollute water with leaking fuel and lubricants: fuel spills induce fires and ruin the chemical balance of water. [66] Oil itself is highly toxic to marine wildlife and microorganisms, but also it contains hydrocarbons that dissolve pollutants such as pesticides or heavy metals and lead to their concentration in the upper layers of water. [17]

Dam destruction causes degradation of vast territories, as well as soil and water contamination. For example, on 26 February 2022, a dam on the Irpin river near Kozarovichi  [ ru ] village was destroyed by Russian troops, resulting in a flood that covered more than 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) and reached Horenka. [67] Any effects on the biodiversity of the Gulf of Odesa, Danube Delta, and Azov Sea, are yet to be estimated. [68]

On 6 June 2023, the Kakhovka Dam was destroyed, sending approximately 90 percent [69] of the freshwater content from what was the largest reservoir by volume in Ukraine [70] downstream. The Dnieper–Bug estuary was inundated, and salinity in neighboring Odesa abruptly declined starting 7 June from an average 11 parts per thousand, reaching a nadir of 4.2 to 4.4 ppt by 13 and 14 June. [71] The discharge contained sediment contaminated by decades of industrial activity, raising polychlorinated biphenyl and lindane concentrations downstream, as well as copper, zinc and arsenic levels. [71] Dissolved nitrogen and phosphorus in the floodwaters caused an algal bloom near Odesa. [71] A rare fish species, Sander marinus , may have been extirpated from the Dnieper–Bug estuary due to its low tolerance for rapid salinity changes (stenohaline) and toxins. [69] Anadromous species of sturgeon whose migration route is blocked by the Dnieper River dams [72] [73] may have been eliminated by the dam's destruction, which occurred during their migration period. [69] A state-run hatchery for protected sturgeon species in Dniprovske was flooded and destroyed. [74] Recolonization of the damaged estuary by invasive species is also a concern. [69] In the long term, the dam removal may permit upstream ecosystem restoration of the Great Meadow [69] [75] and reduce the impacts of impoundment on seasonal flow variation, erosion and sediment transportation downstream, [72] but the Kakhovka Dam provided benefits to the population in the form of irrigation for agriculture and water supply for neighboring large cities and industries, including cooling for the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant. [69] [71]

The Seversky Donets river was in a critical condition back in 2018. The river serves as a water source for all Donbass, but levels of heavy metals and alkylphenols in it were seven times higher than acceptable. [52] [64] In 2022, bombs destroyed Popasnyansky and Uzhnodonbassky waterways, 'Seversky Donets - Donbass' channel, and the Donetskaya filtration plant was stopped several times due to power shortages. Untreated sewage runoff spilled into the river after pipeline ruptures. [76] [77] [78] The hostilities destroyed the water infrastructure that served four million people and left them with no access to clean drinking water. [79] Drinking polluted water affects inner organs, sometimes a week is enough to poison the liver and cause death. [6] [ medical citation needed ] Polluted waters flow downstream and contaminate soils and underground water in Russia. [80]

National parks and nature reserves

National parks and reserves affected by hostilities as of April 2022 Okupovani zapovidniki.webp
National parks and reserves affected by hostilities as of April 2022

Ukraine's national parks and reserves are a part of pan-European chain of protected sites called the Emerald Network that are home to many endangered species. [33] Preliminary assessment shows that more than 1.24 million hectares (3.1 million acres) of protected sites in Ukraine (that is, more than a third) were affected by war. [81] According to the Ukraine Nature Conservation Society, more than 44% of the most valuable natural areas of Ukraine are covered by war. [33] [82]

Russian troops have dug trenches in nature reserves, built fortifications, and planted and exploded mines. [33] In the Grand Meadow National Nature Park Russian tanks moved through the fields of endangered spring meadow saffron that had been part of a conservation program for 16 years. [83] Fighting near Kherson in the Black Sea Biosphere Reserve was so intense that the fires were seen from space. [84] [78] [24]

Meotyda National Nature Park near Mariupol is a habitat and nesting place of many endangered birds, including the Dalmatian pelican and the Pallas's gull. Fighting in forest reserves of the Kinburn Spit lasted more than a week, and caused irreparable damage to the local ecosystem. [45] Dzharylhach National Nature Park, home to many rare endemic herbs, and wild boars, foxes, and deers, became an active fighting zone; more than 56 kilometres (35 mi) of its shores were planted with mines. [33] Also, the war forced many inspectors and environmentalists to leave their workplaces, disrupting the results of many decades-long conservation and biodiversity projects. [85]

On 6 November 2023 the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Natural Resources of Ukraine reported that the Dzharylhach National Nature Park had been completely destroyed due to "Russian armed aggression" during the Russian occupation of Kherson Oblast. [86]

Animals and birds

More than 70 thousand species of flora and fauna live in Ukraine, accounting for more than 35% of Europe's biodiversity. War directly affects local populations and also disrupts migration. [2] [18] Wild animals are killed by shelling and bombing; [87] fires, explosions, and vibrations scare off the animals, force birds to leave their nests, and disrupt their food chain. When crossing rivers, heavy vehicles pollute waters with fuel and lubricants that poison insect larvae. The lower their number, the fewer frogs there will be, meaning no food for cranes. [31] [88] Fighting in spring, most species' breeding season, multiplies the damage. [89]

During the annexation of Crimea by Russia in 2014, Russian troops landed and moved through the protected lands of the Krivaya Kosa nature reserve, destroying nests of the red book listed Pallas's gull. [90] Because of the bombings, in 2022 only 300 Dalmatian pelicans instead of the usual 1500 migrated through the Krivaya Kosa. [88] In just the first three months of the war 200 bombs were dropped onto Tuzly Lagoons. [45]

Conservationists of the Tuzly Lagoons National Nature Park led a 30-year project to restore the connection between coastal lagoons and the Black sea. The natural rivulets that serve as a migration route for billions of small fish to breeding areas were dried up by industrial agriculture. Every spring the employees dug shallow channels to substitute them. In 2022 the coast was laced with mines and the employees had to leave, no digging of channels meant no migration routes for fish, no food base for a 5000 strong population of herons, resulting in a ruined ecosystem. [88]

Dolphins are one of the most affected species. Hundred of dead animals were spotted along the shores of Ukraine, Turkey, Romania, and Bulgaria. It is possible that dolphins died from heavy metal poisoning, explosions, acoustic trauma or disorientation caused by unprecedented noise pollution from military sonars, although the exact cause of the 2022 strandings is not entirely clear and may be polyfactorial. [69] Mechanical injuries and burns were spotted on some of the bodies. [91] [88] [92] Tuzly Parks' director Ivan Rusev estimates the number of dead dolphins at several thousand. [93] [94]

Domestic animals suffer as well. Before the war, there were more than 3.5 million cattle, 5.7 million pigs, and 212 million poultry in Ukraine. These farm animals are hard to relocate, so were often abandoned by owners. [87] Cats and dogs [d] are more frequently taken with evacuated owners, however most are left in war affected areas. [96] [95] Sometimes wildlife returns to the areas deserted by humans. For instance, in the Donetsk region, populations of wolves, foxes and wild dogs grew significantly after 2014, which became frequent spreaders of rabies. A spike of cases has been recorded among local people. [97]

Indirect environmental impacts due to sanctions

When the war started, most international foundations and organisations ceased partnerships with Russia in environmental projects, [98] international studies of climate change in the Arctic were disrupted. [99] In Ukraine, almost all conservation projects were disrupted. [100] The 2021 wildfires in Turkey, Europe, and Siberia, were mostly extinguished by Russian military aircraft. However, in 2022 due to sanctions it was impossible to make such contracts. Even inside Russia, where usually the military help with wildfires, there are no spare because of the war. In combination with an unprecedented heatwave, it can lead to disastrous consequences. [101]

Energy transition

However, the war in Ukraine may also hasten the energy transition. [102] [103] [104] [105] In March 2022, Europe paid Russia approximately 640 million euros daily for oil and gas, and the country's revenues from hydrocarbon exports accounted for more than 40% of its budget. [106] [107] [108] UN secretary António Guterres urged all nations "to put the pedal to the metal towards a renewable energy future" and called trying to fill any fossil fuel supply gaps with gas and coal "mutually assured destruction". [109] [110] Many experts agree that a switch to sustainable energy sources may be more swift and cost-effective than, for instance, building new gas pipelines and terminals. [106]

Meanwhile, some are sceptical and almost sure that this war will disrupt all efforts towards the Paris agreement goals. [111] CO2 emissions will increase if some governments decide to replace Russian fossil fuels with imports from other countries[ how? ] and fill the gap with coal energy. [112] [106] [22] Building new supply chains, new logistics and infrastructure in an attempt to replace Russian hydrocarbons will almost surely lock the world into irreversible warming. [111]

In 2023, many Asian countries have been forced to return to using coal to keep up with energy demands caused by the heat wave in the region, due to the European boycott of Russian oil reducing the availability of liquefied natural gas (LNG). [113] Bloomberg News reported that Russia exported 7.6 million tonnes (17 billion pounds) of coal to Asia in April, with India and China buying over two-thirds. [114] [115]

In the second decade of the 21st century, China took some steps to reduce emissions including decreasing coal use, [116] and it was suggested it will peak emissions in 2022. [117] Due to problems with energy supply in 2022, China has begun to approve new coal plants. By the middle of 2023 it approved so much that,[ citation needed ]

unless permitting is stopped immediately, China won't be able to reduce coal-fired power capacity during the 15th five-year plan (2026–30) without subsequent cancellations of already permitted projects or massive early retirement of existing plants.

China began to build half of the plants approved in 2022 by the summer of 2023. [118] One of the reasons was the war in Ukraine that led to instability in energy supply including rising prices for metals like lithium. [119] [120]

The war led to a significant increase in sales of discounted Russian oil to India and China, and generally made Russian oil more attractive to BRICS countries. The sanctions created "lower invoice prices for Russian goods" to countries that buy it. [121] Brazil has also increased its oil, gasoline and naphtha imports from Russia, which has lowered the diesel price by $10–$15 per barrel ($63–$94/m3). [122]

In 2022, the USA experienced a fracking boom when the war in Ukraine led to a massive increase in approval of new drillings. According to the article in The Guardian, "there is significant political pressure to increase domestic drilling in response to the Russia-Ukraine war". Planned drillings will release 140 billion tonnes (310 trillion pounds) of carbon, four times more than annual global emissions. [123]

Fatih Birol, the head of the International Energy Agency talking about the prospects of COP 28 noted: [124]

the geopolitical situation, with many nations at loggerheads over the war in Ukraine, and still frosty relations between the US and China, would make for a difficult summit. [...] The most important challenge [to limiting temperature rises to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) above pre-industrial levels] is the lack of international cooperation.

Environmental legislation

After 24 February 2022, many potentially hazardous amendments were made to Russian environmental law. For example, construction is now permitted in nature reserves, emissions norms are decreased,[ clarification needed ] Russian car manufacturers are now allowed to produce models regardless of European eco standards, and an environmental impact assessment will not be needed from businesses in the next two years. The state program called Clean Air was also postponed for two years. [125] [78]

Cleaning up war-related pollution is a difficult task: it depends on many factors, such as soil pH, microorganisms' activity, and local temperature. [63]

Prosecution

The Ukrainian government, international observers and journalists have described the damage as ecocide. [126] [127] [128] [129] The Ukrainian government is investigating more than 200 war crimes against the environment and 15 incidents of ecocide (a crime in Ukraine). [130] [131] [132] Ukrainian officials state that they are planning to gain the support of the international community to make Russia pay for reconstruction and recovery. [133] [78] Based on a preliminary assessment the war has inflicted US$51 billion in environmental damage. [134]

Zelenskyy and Ukraine's prosecutor general Andriy Kosti have met with prominent European figures (such as Margot Wallstrom, Heidi Hautala, Mary Robinson and Greta Thunberg) to discuss the environmental damage and how to prosecute it. [135] [136] [131]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geography of Ukraine</span>

Ukraine is the second-largest European country, after Russia. Its various regions have diverse geographic features ranging from highlands to lowlands, as well as climatic range and a wide variety in hydrography. Most of the country lies within the East European Plain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oil spill</span> Release of petroleum into the environment

An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially the marine ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is usually given to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may also occur on land. Oil spills can result from the release of crude oil from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs, and wells. They may also involve spills of refined petroleum products, such as gasoline and diesel fuel, as well as their by-products. Additionally, heavier fuels used by large ships, such as bunker fuel, or spills of any oily refuse or waste oil, contribute to such incidents. These spills can have severe environmental and economic consequences.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toxicity</span> Dose dependant harmfulness of substances

Toxicity is the degree to which a chemical substance or a particular mixture of substances can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism, such as a cell (cytotoxicity) or an organ such as the liver (hepatotoxicity). Sometimes the word is more or less synonymous with poisoning in everyday usage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents</span> Severe disruptive events involving fissile or fusile materials

A nuclear and radiation accident is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as "an event that has led to significant consequences to people, the environment or the facility." Examples include lethal effects to individuals, large radioactivity release to the environment, or a reactor core melt. The prime example of a "major nuclear accident" is one in which a reactor core is damaged and significant amounts of radioactive isotopes are released, such as in the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 and Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wildlife conservation</span> Practice of protecting wild plant and animal species and their habitats

Wildlife conservation refers to the practice of protecting wild species and their habitats in order to maintain healthy wildlife species or populations and to restore, protect or enhance natural ecosystems. Major threats to wildlife include habitat destruction, degradation, fragmentation, overexploitation, poaching, pollution, climate change, and the illegal wildlife trade. The IUCN estimates that 42,100 species of the ones assessed are at risk for extinction. Expanding to all existing species, a 2019 UN report on biodiversity put this estimate even higher at a million species. It is also being acknowledged that an increasing number of ecosystems on Earth containing endangered species are disappearing. To address these issues, there have been both national and international governmental efforts to preserve Earth's wildlife. Prominent conservation agreements include the 1973 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). There are also numerous nongovernmental organizations (NGO's) dedicated to conservation such as the Nature Conservancy, World Wildlife Fund, and Conservation International.

Environmental issues in Iraq are greatly attributed to the government, politics, and region. Iraq is the fifth most vulnerable country to the effects of climate change, subject to oil spills, pollution, land degradation, and poor management of upstream water sources.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental issues in Iran</span>

Iran is one of the world's largest and most densely populated countries, spanning an area of approximately 1.7 million sq. km and a population of 91.5 million. Since 1966 Iran has experienced immense population growth, initially being recorded at 25,781,090 people, and totaling to 75,330,000 in 2010. The various climates, increased population growth, heavy reliance on fossil fuels, and refusal to commit to sustainability goals has extenuated Iran's vulnerability to ecological crisis and climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rainbow Herbicides</span> Herbicides used by the US in the Vietnam War

The Rainbow Herbicides are a group of tactical-use chemical weapons used by the United States military in Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War. Success with Project AGILE field tests in 1961 with herbicides in South Vietnam was inspired by the British use of herbicides and defoliants during the Malayan Emergency in the 1950s, which led to the formal herbicidal program Trail Dust. Herbicidal warfare is the use of substances primarily designed to destroy the plant-based ecosystem of an agricultural food production area and/or to destroy dense foliage which provides the enemy with natural tactical cover.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecocide</span> Mass environmental destruction from human activities

Ecocide is the destruction of the environment by humans. Ecocide threatens all human populations who are dependent on natural resources for maintaining ecosystems and ensuring their ability to support future generations. The Independent Expert Panel for the Legal Definition of Ecocide describes it as "unlawful or wanton acts committed with knowledge that there is a substantial likelihood of severe and either widespread or long-term damage to the environment being caused by those acts".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental issues in the United States</span>

Environmental issues in the United States include climate change, energy, species conservation, invasive species, deforestation, mining, nuclear accidents, pesticides, pollution, waste and over-population. Despite taking hundreds of measures, the rate of environmental issues is increasing rapidly instead of reducing. The United States is among the most significant emitters of greenhouse gasses in the world. In terms of both total and per capita emissions, it is among the largest contributors. The climate policy of the United States has a major influence on the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wetland conservation</span> Conservation of wet areas

Wetland conservation is aimed at protecting and preserving areas of land including marshes, swamps, bogs, and fens that are covered by water seasonally or permanently due to a variety of threats from both natural and anthropogenic hazards. Some examples of these hazards include habitat loss, pollution, and invasive species. Wetland vary widely in their salinity levels, climate zones, and surrounding geography and play a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity, ecosystem services, and support human communities. Wetlands cover at least six percent of the Earth and have become a focal issue for conservation due to the ecosystem services they provide. More than three billion people, around half the world's population, obtain their basic water needs from inland freshwater wetlands. They provide essential habitats for fish and various wildlife species, playing a vital role in purifying polluted waters and mitigating the damaging effects of floods and storms. Furthermore, they offer a diverse range of recreational activities, including fishing, hunting, photography, and wildlife observation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental impact of war</span> Environmental problems caused by warfare

Study of the environmental impact of war focuses on the modernization of warfare and its increasing effects on the environment. Scorched earth methods have been used for much of recorded history. However, the methods of modern warfare cause far greater devastation on the environment. The progression of warfare from chemical weapons to nuclear weapons has increasingly created stress on ecosystems and the environment. Specific examples of the environmental impact of war include World War I, World War II, the Vietnam War, the Rwandan Civil War, the Kosovo War, the Gulf War, and the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.

The environmental impact of agriculture is the effect that different farming practices have on the ecosystems around them, and how those effects can be traced back to those practices. The environmental impact of agriculture varies widely based on practices employed by farmers and by the scale of practice. Farming communities that try to reduce environmental impacts through modifying their practices will adopt sustainable agriculture practices. The negative impact of agriculture is an old issue that remains a concern even as experts design innovative means to reduce destruction and enhance eco-efficiency. Animal agriculture practices tend to be more environmentally destructive than agricultural practices focused on fruits, vegetables and other biomass. The emissions of ammonia from cattle waste continue to raise concerns over environmental pollution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Health and environmental impact of the petroleum industry</span>

The environmental impact of the petroleum industry is extensive and expansive due to petroleum having many uses. Crude oil and natural gas are primary energy and raw material sources that enable numerous aspects of modern daily life and the world economy. Their supply has grown quickly over the last 150 years to meet the demands of the rapidly increasing human population, creativity, knowledge, and consumerism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conservation in Brazil</span>

Even though progress has been made in conserving Brazil’s landscapes, the country still faces serious threats due to its historical land use. Amazonian forests substantially influence regional and global climates and deforesting this region is both a regional and global driver of climate change due to the high amounts of deforestation and habitat fragmentation that have occurred this region.

The desert-covered Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is the geographically largest country in the Middle East. Moreover, it accounts for 65% of the overall population of the GCC countries and 42% of its GDP. Saudi Arabia does not have a strong history in environmentalism. Thus, as the number of population increases and the industrial activity grows, environmental issues pose a real challenge to the country.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dzharylhach National Nature Park</span> National park in Ukraine

Dzharylhach National Nature Park is a national park of Ukraine that covers Dzharylhach Island and the adjacent Karkinit Bay in the northern reaches of the Black Sea. Famous for clean sandy beaches and mineral springs in its many small lakes, Dzharylhach is the largest island in the Black Sea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas emissions by Russia</span> Greenhouse gas emissions originating from Russia and efforts to reduce them

Greenhouse gas emissionsbyRussia are mostly from fossil gas, oil and coal. Russia emits 2 or 3 billion tonnes CO2eq of greenhouse gases each year; about 4% of world emissions. Annual carbon dioxide emissions alone are about 12 tons per person, more than double the world average. Cutting greenhouse gas emissions, and therefore air pollution in Russia, would have health benefits greater than the cost. The country is the world's biggest methane emitter, and 4 billion dollars worth of methane was estimated to leak in 2019/20.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2022 United Nations Climate Change Conference</span> Yearly conference held for climate change treaty negotiations

The 2022 United Nations Climate Change Conference or Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC, more commonly referred to as COP27, was the 27th United Nations Climate Change conference, held from 6 November until 20 November 2022 in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt. It took place under the presidency of Egyptian Minister of Foreign Affairs Sameh Shoukry, with more than 92 heads of state and an estimated 35,000 representatives, or delegates, of 190 countries attending. It was the fifth climate summit held in Africa, and the first since 2016.

References

Notes

  1. ↑ Modern ammo fail rate is estimated at 5%. [5]
  2. ↑ Coke oven gas kills a person after three seconds exposure. If a water tuyere in the convertor department is damaged and water gets into melted metal tanks, it vaporizes and releases hydrogen which explodes. [36]
  3. ↑ For instance, during World War II some mines in Donbass were flooded and the government relocated people from the region. The drainage and restoration took five years. For now, it is hard to evaluate the damage caused by polluted water from flooded mines. However, there are immediate effects such as subsidence and methane explosions in the basements of local houses. [52]
  4. ↑ More than 8 million pet cats and dogs lived in Ukraine in early 2022. [95]

References

  1. 1 2 Lima et al. 2011, p. 104.
  2. 1 2 3 4 "Ukraine and the others: the environmental impacts of war". Eurocommission. 2022-03-30. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  3. 1 2 3 "Russia's invasion could cause long-term harm to Ukraine's prized soil". Science News. 2022-07-02. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  4. ↑ Velázquez, Jaime (2022-03-22). "The climate crisis and the invasion of Ukraine 'have the same roots', says expert". Euronews. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  5. ↑ Dathan 2020, p. 12.
  6. 1 2 3 Alejandro de la Garza (2022-03-18). "The Environmental Health Risks of War in a Highly Industrialized Country Like Ukraine". Time. Retrieved 2022-07-18.
  7. ↑ Dathan 2020, p. 4.
  8. ↑ "The toxic legacy of the Ukraine war". UNEP . 2023-02-22. Retrieved 2023-05-25.
  9. 1 2 "'An Ecocide': How the conflict in Ukraine is bombarding the environment". TRT World. 2022-04-29. Retrieved 2022-07-19.
  10. ↑ "We must not ignore explosive weapons' environmental impact". Conflict and Environment Observatory. 2021-05-12. Retrieved 2022-07-18.
  11. ↑ "Damage to the built environment from the use of explosive weapons" (PDF). Article36. 2013. Retrieved 2022-07-18.
  12. ↑ Dathan 2020, p. 14.
  13. 1 2 3 4 Kónya, Renáta (2022-06-20). "Ukraine Crisis: Unprecedented environmental impacts of war, WWF warns". Budapest Business Journal. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  14. ↑ Guillot, Louise (2022-06-14). "How Ukraine wants to make Russia pay for war's environmental damage". Politico. Retrieved 2022-07-19.
  15. ↑ Hrytsku & Derii 2022.
  16. 1 2 3 4 McCarthy, Joe (2022-04-01). "How Russia's Invasion of Ukraine Is Harming Water, Air, Soil, and Wildlife". Global Citizen. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  17. 1 2 3 4 "Nature and War: How Russian Invasion Destroys Ukrainian Wildlife". Northcoast Environmental Center. 2022-03-28. Retrieved 2022-07-20.
  18. 1 2 Genevieve Kotarska, Lauren Young. "Green Insecurity: The Environmental Costs of War in Ukraine". RUSI. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  19. ↑ Ana & Sridhar 2007, p. 7—8.
  20. 1 2 Lima et al. 2011, p. 102—103.
  21. ↑ Lima et al. 2011, p. 105.
  22. 1 2 "Разрушение всего живого" [Killing all life] (in Russian). Novaya Gazeta. 2022-07-05. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
  23. ↑ Ukraine's Exploding Munition Depots Give Ammunition To Security Concerns.
  24. 1 2 "Ukraine invasion repid overview of environmental issues". CEOBS. 2022-02-25. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
  25. ↑ "Environmental trends in the Ukraine conflict, 10 days in". CEOBS. 2022-03-05. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
  26. ↑ Dathan 2020, p. 10, 12.
  27. 1 2 3 "Is a seal killer in the Caspian the poisonous fuel of Russian missiles?". Turan Information Agency. 2022-12-05. Retrieved 2022-12-17.
  28. ↑ Ayesha Rascoe, Carroll Muffett (2022-04-24). "How the war in Ukraine affects the environment". NPR. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  29. 1 2 "Country brief: Ukraine". CEOBS. 2022-03-26. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
  30. ↑ Nikolaieva, Nikolaieva & Lobodzinskyi 2019, p. 9.
  31. 1 2 "Russia Should Pay for Its Environmental War Crimes". The Wired. 2022-01-22. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  32. ↑ Pax for Peace 2020, p. 19—20.
  33. 1 2 3 4 5 Nuttall, Philippa (2022-05-21). "How Vladimir Putin weaponised the environment in Ukraine". The New Statesman. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
  34. ↑ Smith, Saphora (2022-03-19). "'This is ecocide': Ukrainians hope to rebuild greener country after Russian war ravages environment". The Independent. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
  35. ↑ "Под Луганском после обстрела загорелся нефтеперерабатывающий завод "Роснефти"" (in Russian). Interfax. 2014-07-18. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  36. ↑ Бутченко, М. (2022-07-01). "Подполье. Рассказывают работники "Азовстали", пережившие два месяца осады в подземных убежищах комбината" [Underground. Azovstal workers on surviving two month siege in catacombs] (in Russian). Mediazona. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  37. ↑ "Последний бастион Мариуполя. Что такое завод "Азовсталь", который штурмуют российские войска" [Last stronghold of Mariupol: what is Azovstal, stormed by Russian troops?] (in Russian). BBC. 2022-04-20. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  38. ↑ Азовсталь був зупинений за правилами та не несе небезпеки екології — гендиректор. suspilne.media (in Ukrainian). Kyiv, Ukraine: НСТУ. 2022-03-19. Archived from the original on 2022-04-11. Retrieved 2022-03-19.
  39. ↑ "Под Луганском после обстрела загорелся нефтеперерабатывающий завод "Роснефти"" [Luhansk: Rosneft oil refinery burns after attack] (in Russian). Interfax. 2014-07-18. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  40. ↑ Кізілов [Kizilov], Євген [Eugene] (2022-03-21). Через ворожий обстріл на "Сумихімпромі" стався витік аміаку: зона ураження – 2,5 км [Ammonia leaked due to enemy shelling at Sumykhimprom: 2.5 km]. Українська правда (Ukrayinska Pravda). Archived from the original on 2022-04-18. Retrieved 2022-03-21.
  41. ↑ Browne, Ed (2022-03-21). "Dangers of Ammonia Explained as Russian Shelling Causes Leak in Ukraine". Newsweek. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  42. ↑ "Ukrainian town told to shelter after shelling causes ammonia leak at chemical factory". The Guardian. 2022-03-21. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  43. ↑ "В ЛНР обвинили ВСУ в подрыве цистерны с азотной кислотной в городе Рубежное" [LNR accuses AFU of blowing nitric acid reservoirs in Rubezhnoe] (in Russian). Izvestiya. 2022-04-09. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  44. ↑ "В Луганской области из-за обстрелов взорвалась цистерна с азотной кислотой". Meduza. 2022-04-09. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  45. 1 2 3 Kottasová, Ivana (2022-05-22). "Ukraine's natural environment is another casualty of war. The damage could be felt for decades". CNN. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  46. ↑ "Российская ракета привела к утечке химикатов в Тернопольской области" [Russian hit causes chemical spill in Ternopol district]. RBC Ukraine. 2022-04-05. Retrieved 2022-07-11.
  47. ↑ "Посол ЛНР: после взрыва в районе Северодонецка виден "гриб химического происхождения"" [LNR envoy: chemical cloud detected after explosion in Severodonetsk district]. TASS. 2022-06-18. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  48. ↑ Jones, Benji (2022-06-02). "The pollution from Russia's war will poison Ukraine for decades". Vox. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  49. ↑ Gardashuk 2022.
  50. ↑ "Russia's invasion causes over $6 billion worth of environmental damage". The Kyiv Independent. 2022-06-23. Retrieved 2022-07-20.
  51. ↑ Marx, Daniella; Morin, Caroline; Spiller, Cole; Barth, Yasha; Woodworth, Aliia; Cable, Catherine; Rivera, Carolina (2022-05-20). "Environmental Effect of Coal Mine Deterioration in Eastern Ukraine". National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency and College of William & Mary . Archived from the original on 2022-09-01. Retrieved 2022-08-13.
  52. 1 2 Dathan 2020, p. 10.
  53. ↑ Coynash, Halya (2021-11-06). "Russia finances war in Donbas, but ignores the environmental disaster its proxy 'republics' are causing Ukraine". Kharkiv Human Rights Protection Group. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  54. ↑ Pax for Peace 2020, p. 20.
  55. ↑ Braun, Stuart (2022-06-23). "Ukraine war threatens climate targets". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 2022-07-19.
  56. ↑ Martinezcuello, Francisco (2022-04-11). "Ukraine Is Ground Zero for the Environmental Impacts of War". Sierra. Retrieved 2022-07-19.
  57. ↑ Lakhani, Nina; reporter, Nina Lakhani Climate justice (2024-06-13). "Russia's war with Ukraine accelerating global climate emergency, report shows". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 2024-06-14.
  58. ↑ "Total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions during the Russia-Ukraine war from February 2022 to February 2024, by sector". Statista. Retrieved 2024-07-01.
  59. ↑ "Why Ukraine's nuclear power is so crucial to Russia's invasion following Zaporizhzhia attack". inews.co.uk. 2022-03-04.
  60. ↑ "Ukraine's nuclear nightmare is only part of the war's environmental horrors". POLITICO. 2022-03-04.
  61. ↑ "How Putin made the Green Deal great again". POLITICO. 2022-03-08.
  62. ↑ Sara Schonhardt, Benjamin Storrow (2022-03-16). "War in Ukraine and Climate Change Could Combine to Create a Food Crisis – Russia's invasion is halting the delivery of wheat to areas suffering from drought and other climate impacts". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 2022-04-18.
  63. 1 2 Lima et al. 2011, p. 106.
  64. 1 2 "Ukraine's Donbas bears the brunt of toxic armed conflict". UNEP. 2018-07-25. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  65. ↑ Shumilova, Oleksandra; Tockner, Klement; Sukhodolov, Alexander; Khilchevskyi, Valentyn; De Meester, Luc; Stepanenko, Sergiy; Trokhymenko, Ganna; Hernández-Agüero, Juan Antonio; Gleick, Peter (2023-03-02). "Impact of the Russia–Ukraine armed conflict on water resources and water infrastructure". Nature Sustainability. 6 (5). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 578–586. Bibcode:2023NatSu...6..578S. doi: 10.1038/s41893-023-01068-x . ISSN   2398-9629.
  66. ↑ Seibt, Sébastian (2022-05-13). "Ukraine river ambush shows again Russian military is 'not up to scratch'". France 24. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  67. ↑ "В Киевской области из-за подрыва оккупантами дамбы есть угроза затопления села. Разлив реки не дает РФ перебрасывать свои войска". nv.ua (in Russian). 2022-03-19. Archived from the original on 2022-04-18.
  68. ↑ "Press release – A War in the Black Sea and its Effects on Marine Environment". Turkish marine research foundation. 2022-04-13. Retrieved 2022-07-19.
  69. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Stone, Richard (2024). "Laid to Waste: Ukrainian scientists are tallying the grave environmental consequences of the Kakhovka Dam disaster". Science. 383 (6678): 18–23. doi:10.1126/science.zbde496.
  70. ↑ Khilchevskyi, V.K.; Grebin, V.V. (2021). "Large and small reservoirs of Ukraine: regional and basin distribution features". Гідрологія, гідрохімія і гідроекологія (in Ukrainian). 60 (2 (60)): 6–17. doi: 10.17721/2306-5680.2021.2.1 .
  71. 1 2 3 4 Vyshnevskyi, Viktor; Shevchuk, Serhii; Komorin, Viktor; Oleynik, Yurii; Gleick, Peter (2023). "The destruction of the Kakhovka dam and its consequences". Water International. 48 (5): 631–647. doi: 10.1080/02508060.2023.2247679 .
  72. 1 2 Kostyuk, Alina (2021-11-25). "The Dnieper River: A Geomorphological Case Study". ArcGIS Story Maps. Retrieved 2024-08-07.
  73. ↑ Sukhodolov, A.N.; Arnaut, N.A.; Kudersky, L.A.; Loboda, N.S.; Bekh, V.V.; Skakalsky, B.G.; Katolikov, V.M.; Usatii, M.A. (2009). "Chapter 13 - Western Steppic Rivers". In Tockner, Klement; Uehlinger, Urs; Robinson, Christopher T. (eds.). Rivers of Europe. Academic Press. pp. 497–523. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-369449-2.00013-8. ISBN   978-0-12-369449-2.
  74. ↑ "Blowing up of Kakhovka HPP: the only state-run sturgeon breeding plant completely flooded". Ukrainska Pravda. 2023-06-07. Retrieved 2024-08-06.
  75. ↑ Synelnyk, Iryna (2024-06-06). "Великий Луг – величезний "холодильник" для всієї планети. Він впливатиме на клімат Землі", - еколог Вадим Манюк ["The Great Meadow is a huge "refrigerator" for the whole planet. It will affect the Earth's climate," - ecologist Vadym Maniuk]. UNIAN.
  76. ↑ "Как российское наступление нанесло ущерб критической водной инфраструктуре Донбасса" [How Russian invasion hurts critical infrastructure of Donbass] (in Russian). Bellingcat. 2022-06-24. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
  77. ↑ "Environment and Conflict Alert Ukraine: A first glimpse of the toxic toll of Russia's invasion of Ukraine". 2022-03-09.
  78. 1 2 3 4 Roscini, Flavia (2022-04-13). "The Environmental Cost of the War in Ukraine". IRR. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
  79. ↑ "1.4 million people without running water across war-affected eastern Ukraine". UNICEF. 2022-04-15. Retrieved 2022-07-19.
  80. ↑ Hook & Marcantonio 2022.
  81. ↑ Vanessa Montalbano, Maxine Joselow (2022-04-19). "War in Ukraine poses environmental risk now and in the future, advocates say". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  82. ↑ "44% of the most valuable natural areas of Ukraine are covered by war: join the initiative "Save nature in the days of war together"!". Ukrainian Nature Conservation Group. 2022-03-24. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
  83. ↑ Kateryna, Gorbenko. "Nationally rare plants destroyed under the wheels of Russian army vehicles". Nature Reserve Fund of Ukraine. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
  84. ↑ Anthes, Emily (2022-04-13). "A 'Silent Victim': How Nature Becomes a Casualty of War". The New York Times . Translated by Kinsella, Ali. New York, USA. Archived from the original on 2022-04-18. Retrieved 2022-04-18.
  85. ↑ "Global Conservation Stands in Solidarity with Ukraine". Global Conversation. 2022-03-12. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  86. ↑ "The occupiers completely destroyed the Dzharylhach National Park and two wetlands" (in Ukrainian). Ekonomichna Pravda. 2023-11-06. Retrieved 2023-11-06.
  87. 1 2 "Animals suffering during the war in Ukraine - Statement". World Animal Protection. 2022-04-06. Retrieved 2022-07-20.
  88. 1 2 3 4 Cundy, Antonia (2022-06-07). "Dead dolphins: how nature became another casualty of the Ukraine war". The Guardian. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  89. ↑ "Assessing the environmental impacts of the war in Ukraine". WWF. 2022-06-13. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  90. ↑ "How war affects biodiversity: story of birds on Kryva Kosa". Wow Nature. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  91. ↑ Uğurtaş, Selin (2022-05-10). "Ukraine war may be causing rise in dolphin deaths, say scientists". The Guardian. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  92. ↑ Santora, Marc (2022-06-02). "Dolphins Dying in Black Sea, and May Be Casualties of War, Scientists Say". The New York Times. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  93. ↑ "Война в Украине. 121‑й день" [War in Ukraine. Day 121]. Медиазона (in Russian). Retrieved 2022-06-25.
  94. ↑ Sankaran, Vishwam (2022-06-06). "'Several thousand' dolphins may have already died during Russia-Ukraine war, Black Sea scientists warn". The Independent. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  95. 1 2 Cima, Greg (2022-03-31). "Animals also victims of war in Ukraine". AVMA. Retrieved 2022-07-20.
  96. ↑ Torrella, Kenny (2022-05-26). "Animal welfare in wartime". VOX. Retrieved 2022-07-20.
  97. ↑ Dathan 2020, p. 23.
  98. ↑ Gaind, Nisha; Abbott, Alison; Witze, Alexandra; Gibney, Elizabeth; Tollefson, Jeff; Irwin, Aisling; Van Noorden, Richard (2022-07-20). "Seven ways the war in Ukraine is changing global science". Nature. 607 (7919): 440–443. Bibcode:2022Natur.607..440G. doi: 10.1038/d41586-022-01960-0 . PMID   35859193. S2CID   250731567.
  99. ↑ Witze, Alexandra (2022-07-11). "Russia's war in Ukraine forces Arctic climate projects to pivot". Nature. 607 (7919). Nature.com: 432. Bibcode:2022Natur.607..432W. doi: 10.1038/d41586-022-01868-9 . PMID   35817867. S2CID   250453556.
  100. ↑ "War in Ukraine threatens an intriguing piece of wildlife science". The Economist. 2022-03-19. Retrieved 2022-07-20.
  101. ↑ Rott, Nathan (2022-07-01). "Shredded trees, dead dolphins and wildfires — how Russia's invasion is hurting nature". NPR. Retrieved 2022-07-20.
  102. ↑ "How the Ukraine war is accelerating Germany's renewable energy transition". Environment. 2022-05-06. Archived from the original on 2022-05-06. Retrieved 2022-05-31.
  103. ↑ Bokat-Lindell, Spencer (2022-03-16). "What the Ukraine War Means for the Future of Climate Change". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2022-04-19. Retrieved 2022-04-19.
  104. ↑ Lazard, O. (2022-03-04). "Russia's Ukraine Invasion and Climate Change Go Hand in Hand". Carnegie Europe. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  105. ↑ Einhorn, Catrin; Friedman, Lisa (2022-03-18). "Nations Should Conserve Fuel as Global Energy Crisis Looms, Agency Warns". The New York Times. Retrieved 2022-03-25.
  106. 1 2 3 "Will war fast-track the energy transition?". Deutsche Welle. 2022-03-04.
  107. ↑ Jordans, Frank. "German official: Ukraine war will boost low-emissions tech". phys.org. Retrieved 2022-03-25.
  108. ↑ "'This is a fossil fuel war': Ukraine's top climate scientist speaks out". The Guardian. 2022-03-09. Retrieved 2022-03-10.
  109. ↑ "UN chief: Don't let Russia crisis fuel climate destruction". ABC News. Retrieved 2022-03-25.
  110. ↑ McGrath, Matt (2022-03-21). "Climate change: 'Madness' to turn to fossil fuels because of Ukraine war". BBC. Archived from the original on 2022-04-19. Retrieved 2022-04-19.
  111. 1 2 Fisher, Jonah (2022-06-08). "Climate change: Ukraine war prompts fossil fuel 'gold rush' - report". BBC. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
  112. ↑ "Umweltschützer kritisieren Lindners Tank-Rabatt". www.t-online.de (in German). Retrieved 2022-03-25.
  113. ↑ de Guzman, Chad (2023-05-19). "Russia's War in Ukraine Is Worsening Asia's Heat Wave". Time . Retrieved 2023-05-21.
  114. ↑ Tan, Huileng (2023-05-22). "Asia is in the middle of a record heatwave, and Russia is reaping the financial rewards of it". Business Insider . Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  115. ↑ Chin, Yongchang (2023-05-21). "Crippling Heat Deepens Asia's Reliance on Russian Energy". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 2023-05-23.
  116. ↑ "China confirms ban on new coal-fired power plant construction until 2018". Enerdata. 2016-07-12. Retrieved 2023-11-05.
  117. ↑ Stanway, David (2019-09-05). "China CO2 emissions to peak in 2022, ahead of schedule - government researcher". Reuters. Retrieved 2023-11-05.
  118. ↑ Davidson, Helen (2023-08-29). "China continues coal spree despite climate goals". The Guardian. Retrieved 2023-11-05.
  119. ↑ Wallace, Jeremy (2022-05-26). "The Ukraine War's Shadow on China's Road to Decarbonization". New Security Beat. Retrieved 2023-11-05.
  120. ↑ Chen, Yawen (2022-06-02). "Ukraine war helps China's coal addiction stack up". Reuters. Retrieved 2023-11-05.
  121. ↑ Ying Shan, Lee (2023-09-11). "Western sanctions on Russia could push the BRICS alliance closer". CNBC. Retrieved 2023-10-22.
  122. ↑ Aris, Ben (2023-08-28). "BRICS MATERIALS: the flourishing intra-BRICS oil trade". bne IntelliNews. Retrieved 2023-10-22.
  123. ↑ Lakhani, Nina; Milman, Oliver (2022-05-11). "US fracking boom could tip world to edge of climate disaster". The Guardian. Retrieved 2023-12-01.
  124. ↑ Harvey, Fiona (2023-09-26). "'Staggering' green growth gives hope for 1.5C, says global energy chief". The Guardian. Retrieved 2023-09-29.
  125. ↑ Zelenaya, Olexandra (2022-07-01). "Russia Slashes Environmental Protections as War Rages, Economic Crisis Looms". The Moscow Times. Retrieved 2022-07-01.
  126. ↑ "The Environmental Cost of the War in Ukraine". International Relations Review. 2023-06-02. Retrieved 2023-06-07.
  127. ↑ Graham-Harrison, Emma (2022-08-27). "Toxins in soil, blasted forests – Ukraine counts cost of Putin's 'ecocide'". The Observer. ISSN   0029-7712 . Retrieved 2023-06-07.
  128. ↑ Qazi, Shereena. "'An Ecocide': How the conflict in Ukraine is bombarding the environment". 'An Ecocide': How the conflict in Ukraine is bombarding the environment. Retrieved 2023-06-07.[ permanent dead link ]
  129. ↑ "Ukrainians hope to rebuild greener country after Russia's war causes 'ecocide'". The Independent . 2022-03-19. Retrieved 2023-06-07.
  130. ↑ "Ukraine Recap: Zelenskiy Decries 'Ecocide' Brought on by War - BNN Bloomberg". BNN. 2023-06-30. Retrieved 2023-07-03.
  131. 1 2 Ragozin, Leonid (2019-03-16). "Annexation of Crimea: A masterclass in political manipulation". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 2020-11-07. Retrieved 2022-05-24.
  132. ↑ "Will Kakhovka Dam destruction make 'ecocide' a global crime?". openDemocracy. Retrieved 2023-07-03.
  133. ↑ Gardashuk 2022, p. 1—5.
  134. ↑ "One Year In, Russia's War on Ukraine Has Inflicted $51 Billion in Environmental Damage". Yale E360. Retrieved 2023-07-03.
  135. ↑ Gigova, Radina (2023-07-02). "Russia is accused of 'ecocide' in Ukraine. But what does that mean?". CNN. Retrieved 2023-07-03.
  136. ↑ "Zelenskyy meets Greta Thunberg, Mary Robinson to address war's effect on Ukraine's ecology". TheJournal.ie. Press Association. 2023-06-29. Retrieved 2023-07-03.

Sources

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.