Hesperocyparis macrocarpa

Last updated

Monterey cypress
Lone cypress in 17-mile-drive.jpg
The "Lone Cypress" near Monterey, California
Status TNC G1.svg
Critically Imperiled  (NatureServe) [2]
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Gymnospermae
Division: Pinophyta
Class: Pinopsida
Order: Cupressales
Family: Cupressaceae
Genus: Hesperocyparis
Species:
H. macrocarpa
Binomial name
Hesperocyparis macrocarpa
(Hartw.) Bartel
Synonyms [3]
List
    • Callitropsis macrocarpa (Hartw.) D.P.Little
    • Cupressus hartwegii Carrière
    • Cupressus lambertiana Carrière
    • Cupressus lambertiana var. fastigiata Carrière
    • Cupressus macrocarpa Hartw.
    • Cupressus macrocarpa var. angulata Lemmon
    • Cupressus macrocarpa f. crippsii (R.Sm.) Rehder
    • Cupressus macrocarpa var. crippsii R.Sm.
    • Cupressus macrocarpa var. farallonensis Mast.
    • Cupressus macrocarpa f. fastigiata (Carrière) Rehder
    • Cupressus macrocarpa var. fastigiata (Carrière) Anon.
    • Cupressus macrocarpa var. lambertiana (Carrière) Anon.
    • Cupressus macrocarpa subsp. lobosensis Silba
    • Cupressus macrocarpa var. lutea Webster
    • Cupressus macrocarpa f. lutea (Webster) Rehder
    • Cupressus macrocarpa f. pygmaea A.B.Jacks.
    • Cupressus macrocarpa variegata Van Geert
    • Cupressus reinwardtii Beissn.
    • Neocupressus macrocarpa (Hartw.) de Laub.

Hesperocyparis macrocarpa also known as Cupressus macrocarpa, [4] [5] or the Monterey cypress is a coniferous tree, and is one of several species of cypress trees endemic to California.

Contents

The Monterey cypress is found naturally only on the Central Coast of California. Due to being a glacial relict, the natural distributional range of the species during modern times is confined to two small relict populations near Carmel, California, at Cypress Point in Pebble Beach and at Point Lobos. [6] Historically during the peak of the last ice age, Monterey cypress would have likely comprised a much larger forest that extended much further north and south. [7]

Description

Hesperocyparis macrocarpa is a medium-sized coniferous evergreen tree, which often becomes irregular and flat-topped as a result of the strong winds that are typical of its native area. It grows to heights of up to 40 meters (133 feet) in perfect growing conditions, and its trunk diameter can reach 2.5 meters (over 8 feet). The foliage grows in dense sprays which are bright green in color and release a deep lemony aroma when crushed. The leaves are scale-like, 2–5 mm long, and produced on rounded (not flattened) shoots; seedlings up to a year old have needle-like leaves 4–8 mm long.

The seed cones are globose to oblong, 20–40 mm long, with 6–14 scales, green at first, maturing brown about 20–24 months after pollination. The pollen cones are 3–5 mm long, and release their pollen in late winter or early spring. [8] [9] [10] The Latin specific epithet macrocarpa means "with large fruit". [11]

Because of the large trunk size some trees develop, people have assumed that individual H. macrocarpa trees may be up to 2,000 years old. However, the longest-lived report based on physical evidence is only 284 years old. [12] The renowned Californian botanist Willis Linn Jepson wrote that "the advertisement of [C. macrocarpa trees] in seaside literature as 1,000 to 2,000 years old does not ... rest upon any actual data, and probably represents a desire to minister to a popular craving for superlatives". [13] Few trees survive beyond 100 years. As a counterpoint to this, many of the earliest introductions of the species into New Zealand around 1860 still survive and the major cause of mortality of these cultivated specimens is felling. [14] One such example is the 160 year old St. Barnabas Church tree in Stoke, Nelson, New Zealand. [15]

Taxonomy

Hesperocyparis macrocarpa was given its first scientific description by the German botanist Karl Theodor Hartweg with the name Cupressus macrocarpa. [3] Hartweg's trip to California coincided with the Mexican–American War. He observed in his report, "Under these circumstances I cannot venture far away from Monterey, nor is it advisable that I should do so, as I might fall in with a party of country people, who could not be persuaded that a person would come all the way from London to look after weeds, which in their opinion are not worth picking up, but might suppose that I have some political object in view ; I, therefore, confine my excursions within a few miles of the town." In July 1846 he observed the Monterey cypress trees and named them, though his paper was not received in London until 10 May of the following year. [16]

Along with other New World Cupressus species, it has recently been transferred to the genus Hesperocyparis , on genetic evidence that the New World Cupressus (NWC) are not very closely related to the Old World Cupressus (OWC) species. [17] [18]

Hesperocyparis macrocarpa is a paleoendemic, with fossilized remains discovered in Drakes Bay and Rancho La Brea evidencing a much larger extent in the past. [7]

Phylogenetic analysis of nuclear DNA sequences and organismic data recover distinct lineages, with the NWC being sister to Juniperus or Juniperus and the OWC. [19] However, chloroplast sequences sometimes place both OWC and NWC with a common ancestor, possibly due to ancient hybridization. [20] Other more obvious morphological differences support their separation, such as the presence of 3 to 5 cotyledons in NWC, as opposed to 2 in Old World species, glaucous seed coats, and monomorphic leaves on ultimate branch segments. [21]

Analysis of phylogenetic relationships show that the species is placed within the Macrocarpa clade, which diverged from the Arizonica clade, both within Hesperocyparis. The two clades are separated biogeographically by the Transverse Ranges, which forms a barrier to any north–south migration of most species within these clades. [21]

Distribution

The two native cypress forest stands are protected, within Point Lobos State Natural Reserve and Del Monte Forest. The natural habitat is noted for its cool, moist summers, frequently enveloping the trees in sea fog. [8] [9]

This species has been widely planted outside its native range, particularly along the coasts of California and Oregon. Its European distribution includes Great Britain (including the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands), France, Ireland, Greece, Italy and Portugal. [22] In New Zealand, plantings have naturalized, finding conditions there more favorable than in its native range. It has also been grown experimentally as a timber crop in Kenya. [8] [10]

The tree has been successfully planted in Sri Lanka, with a 130-year old specimen on view at the Hakgala Botanical Garden in Nuwara Eliya. [23]

Hesperocyparis macrocarpa is also grown in South Africa. [24] For example, a copse has been planted to commemorate South African infantrymen who died in the Allied cause in Italy and North Africa during World War 2. As in California, the Cape trees are gnarled and wind-sculpted.

Trees showing the species' typical wind-sculpted habit in its native area Artsey cypress.jpg
Trees showing the species' typical wind-sculpted habit in its native area

Cultivation

Monterey cypress has been widely cultivated away from its native range, both elsewhere along the California coast, and in other areas with similar cool summer, mild winter oceanic climates. It was very early cultivated in the United Kingdom. In 1846 Karl Hartweg send the Royal Horticultural Society seeds along with a report on his journeys in California. [25] It is a popular private garden and public landscape tree in California. It is so widely planted in Golden Gate Park that the silhouette of the tree is sometimes printed as a symbol of the park. [26] [27]

When planted in areas with hot summers, for example in interior California away from the coastal fog belt, Monterey cypress has proved highly susceptible to cypress canker, caused by the fungus Seiridium cardinale, and rarely survives more than a few years. This disease is not a problem where summers are cool. [28]

The foliage is slightly toxic to livestock and can cause miscarriages in cattle. [29] Sawn logs are used by many craftspeople, some boat builders and small manufacturers, as a furniture structural material and a decorative wood because of its fine colours, though it must be preserved carefully to prevent the wood from splitting. It is also a fast, hot burning, albeit sparky (therefore not suited to open fires), firewood.

In Australasia

In Australia and New Zealand, Monterey cypress is most frequently grown as a windbreak tree on farms, usually in rows or shelter belts. It is also planted in New Zealand as an ornamental tree and, occasionally, as a timber tree. There, finding more favorable growing conditions than in its native range, and in the absence of many native pathogens, it often grows much larger, with trees recorded at over 40 m (130 ft) tall and 3 m (9.8 ft) in trunk diameter. [8] [10] One specimen – with a trunk diameter of more than 4.6 m (15 ft) – is considered to be the largest recorded single-stemmed specimen in the world. [30] The timber of Monterey cypress was used for fence posts on New Zealand farms before electric fencing became popular.

Cultivars

A number of cultivars have been selected for garden use, including Goldcrest, with yellow-green, semi-juvenile foliage (with spreading scale-leaf tips) and Lutea with yellow-green foliage. Goldcrest has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit [31] (confirmed 2017). [32]

Monterey cypress is one of the parents of the fast-growing cultivated hybrid Leyland cypress, Cupressus × Leylandii, the other parent being Nootka cypress (Callitropsis nootkatensis). [10]

Hesperocyparis macrocarpa cultivars grown in New Zealand are: [33]

Chemistry

Isocupressic acid, a labdane diterpenoid, is an abortifacient component of H. macrocarpa. [34] Monoterpenes (α- and γ-terpinene and terpinolene) are constituents of the foliage volatile oil. [35] The oil exact composition is : α-pinene (20.2%), sabinene (12.0%), p-Cymene (7.0%) and terpinen-4-ol (29.6%). [36] Unusual sesquiterpenes can be found in the foliage. [37] Longiborneol (also known as juniperol or macrocarpol) can also be isolated from Monterey cypresses. [38]

Related Research Articles

Cypress is a common name for various coniferous trees or shrubs of northern temperate regions that belong to the family Cupressaceae. The word cypress is derived from Old French cipres, which was imported from Latin cypressus, the latinisation of the Greek κυπάρισσος (kyparissos). Cypress trees are a large classification of conifers, encompassing the trees and shrubs from the cypress family (Cupressaceae) and many others with the word cypress in their common name. Many cypress trees have needle-like, evergreen foliage and acorn-like seed cones.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cupressaceae</span> Cypress family of conifers

Cupressaceae is a conifer family, the cypress, with worldwide distribution. The family includes 27–30 genera, which include the junipers and redwoods, with about 130–140 species in total. They are monoecious, subdioecious or (rarely) dioecious trees and shrubs up to 116 m (381 ft) tall. The bark of mature trees is commonly orange- to red-brown and of stringy texture, often flaking or peeling in vertical strips, but smooth, scaly or hard and square-cracked in some species.

<i>Cupressus</i> Several genera of evergreen conifers

Cupressus is one of several genera of evergreen conifers within the family Cupressaceae that have the common name cypress; for the others, see cypress. It is considered a polyphyletic group. Based on genetic and morphological analysis, the genus Cupressus is found in the subfamily Cupressoideae. The common name "cypress" comes via the Old French cipres from the Latin cyparissus, which is the latinisation of the Greek κυπάρισσος (kypárissos).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leyland cypress</span> Species of conifer

The Leyland cypress, Cupressus × leylandii, × Cuprocyparis leylandii or × Cupressocyparis leylandii, often referred to simply as leylandii, is a fast-growing coniferous evergreen tree much used in horticulture, primarily for hedges and screens. Even on sites of relatively poor culture, plants have been known to grow to heights of 15 metres (49 ft) in 16 years. Their rapid, thick growth means they are sometimes used to achieve privacy, but such use can result in disputes with neighbours whose own property becomes overshadowed. The tree is a hybrid of Monterey cypress and Nootka cypress. It is almost always sterile, and is propagated mainly by cuttings.

<i>Callitropsis nootkatensis</i> Species of conifer

Callitropsis nootkatensis, formerly known as Cupressus nootkatensis, is a species of tree in the cypress family native to the coastal regions of northwestern North America. This species goes by many common names including: Nootka cypress, yellow cypress, Alaska cypress, Nootka cedar, yellow cedar, Alaska cedar, and Alaska yellow cedar. The specific epithet nootkatensis is derived from its discovery by Europeans on the lands of a First Nation of Canada, the Nuu-chah-nulth people of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, who were formerly referred to as the Nootka.

<i>Xanthocyparis</i> Genus of conifers in the family Cupressaceae

Xanthocyparis is a genus of cypresses in the family Cupressaceae. As of August 2021, it has only one species, Xanthocyparis vietnamensis, native to Vietnam and southeast China. It is commonly known as the Vietnamese golden cypress. The Nootka cypress, Cupressus nootkatensis or Callitropsis nootkatensis, was also placed in the genus, but this has been rejected.

<i>Hesperocyparis arizonica</i> Species of conifer

Hesperocyparis arizonica, the Arizona cypress, is a North American species of tree in the cypress family Cupressaceae, native to the southwestern United States and Mexico. Populations may be scattered rather than in large, dense stands.

<i>Hesperocyparis bakeri</i> Western North American species of conifer

Hesperocyparis bakeri, previously known Cupressus bakeri, with the common names Baker cypress, Modoc cypress, or Siskiyou cypress, is a rare species of western cypress tree endemic to a small area across far northern California and extreme southwestern Oregon, in the western United States.

<i>Hesperocyparis goveniana</i> Californian species of western cypress

Hesperocyparis goveniana commonly known as Californian cypress and Gowen cypress, is a species of western cypress that is endemic to a small area of coastal California near Monterey. It was formerly classified as Cupressus goveniana.

<i>Hesperocyparis pygmaea</i> Californian species of western cypress

Hesperocyparis pygmaea, the Mendocino cypress or pygmy cypress, is a taxon of disputed status in the western cypress genus. It is endemic to certain coastal terraces and coastal mountain ranges of Mendocino and Sonoma Counties in northwestern California. It is a variable tree, and closely related to Hesperocyparis abramsiana and Hesperocyparis goveniana, enough to sometimes be considered conspecific with them.

<i>Hesperocyparis guadalupensis</i> Island endemic species of western cypress tree

Hesperocyparis guadalupensis, commonly known as Guadalupe cypress, is a species of western cypress from Guadalupe Island in the Pacific Ocean off the western coast of Mexico's Baja Peninsula. It was previously known as Cupressus guadalupensis until 2009. It is a medium sized tree with fine green to blue-green foliage. In its native habitat it depends on water from the fogs that envelop the high northern half of the island. It became an endangered species due to feral goats living on Guadalupe Island that prevented new trees from growing for more than a century. In 2005 the goats were finally removed from its island home as part of an island restoration project. New trees are growing and other plants are beginning to recover though the future of the species is not yet assured. Guadalupe cypress is closely related to the vulnerable Tecate cypress which grows on the mainland in Baja California and southern California. It is used as an ornamental tree in Mediterranean climates, particularly in Europe, but has no significant human uses.

<i>Hesperocyparis abramsiana</i> Californian species of western cypress

The Santa Cruz cypress is a species of North American tree within the cypress family. The species is endemic to the Santa Cruz Mountains within the Santa Cruz and San Mateo counties of west-central California. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed the species on the Endangered Species Act in 1987 due to increasing threats from habitat loss and disruption of natural forest fire regimes. In 2016, the conservation status of the Santa Cruz cypress changed to Threatened. The cited reasoning was a decrease in threats against their habitat.

<i>Hesperocyparis lusitanica</i> Central American and Mexican species of western cypress

Hesperocyparis lusitanica, the Mexican cypress, cedar-of-Goa or Goa cedar, is a species of cypress native to Mexico and Central America. It has also been introduced to Belize, Costa Rica and Nicaragua, growing at 1,200–3,000 metres (3,900–9,800 ft) altitude.

<i>Hesperocyparis macnabiana</i> Species of flowering plant in the family

Hesperocyparis macnabiana is a species of western cypress in from California that was previously named Cupressus macnabiana.

<i>Hesperocyparis sargentii</i> Californian species of western cypress tree

Hesperocyparis sargentii is a species of conifer in the family Cupressaceae known by the common name Sargent's cypress. It is endemic to California, where it is known from Mendocino County southwards to Santa Barbara County. This taxon is limited to the Coast Range mountains. It grows in forests with other conifers, as well as chaparral and other local mountain habitat, usually in pure stands on serpentine soils. It generally grows 10 to 15 meters tall, but it is known to exceed 22 meters. On Carson Ridge in Marin County, as well as Hood Mountain in Sonoma County, the species comprises a pygmy forest of trees which do not attain heights greater than 240–360 cm due to high mineral concentrations in the serpentine soil.

<i>Hesperocyparis forbesii</i> Western North American species of western cypress

Hesperocyparis forbesii, with the common names Tecate cypress or Forbes' cypress, is a nonflowering, seed bearing tree species of western cypress native to southwestern North America in California and Baja California. It was formerly known as Cupressus forbesii.

<i>Hesperocyparis stephensonii</i> Californian species of western cypress

Hesperocyparis stephensonii is a species of western cypress known as the Cuyamaca cypress that is found only in two very small areas in Southern California and northwestern Baja California.

<i>Hesperocyparis glabra</i> Species of conifer

Hesperocyparis glabra, known as the Arizona smooth bark cypress or smooth Arizona cypress, is a conifer native to the American Southwest, with a range stretching over the canyons and slopes in a somewhat wide vicinity around Sedona, Arizona. It is distinguished from Hesperocyparis arizonica by its very smooth, non-furrowed bark which can appear in shades of pink, cherry, and grey.

<i>Hesperocyparis nevadensis</i> Californian species of western cypress

Hesperocyparis nevadensis is a species of western cypress tree with the common name Paiute cypress native to a small area in the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California in the western United States. It was formerly known as Cupressus nevadensis.

<i>Hesperocyparis</i> Genus of conifers

Hesperocyparis is a genus of trees in the family Cupressaceae, containing North American species otherwise assigned to the genus Cupressus. They are found throughout western North America. Only a few species have wide ranges, with most being restricted-range endemics.

References

  1. ↑ Farjon, A. (2013). "Cupressus macrocarpa". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013 (2013). doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T30375A2793139.en .
  2. ↑ "NatureServe Explorer 2.0".
  3. 1 2 "Hesperocyparis macrocarpa (Hartw.) Bartel". Plants of the World Online . Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew . Retrieved 11 February 2024.
  4. ↑ Bartel, Jim A. (2012). "Hesperocyparis macrocarpa". Jepson eFlora. Archived from the original on 2017-08-28. Retrieved 4 October 2021.
  5. ↑ Robert P. Adams; Jim A. Bartel; Robert A. Price (2009). "A new genus, Hesperocyparis, for the cypresses of the Western Hemisphere" (PDF). Phytologia . 91 (1): 160–185.
  6. ↑ C. Michael Hogan & Michael P. Frankis. 2009. Monterey Cypress: Cupressus macrocarpa, GlobalTwitcher.com ed. N. Stromberg Archived 2017-09-06 at the Wayback Machine
  7. 1 2 Axelrod, D. I. (1982). AGE AND ORIGIN OF THE MONTEREY ENDEMIC AREA. Madroño, 29(3), 127–147.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Farjon, A. (2005). Monograph of Cupressaceae and Sciadopitys. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. ISBN   1-84246-068-4
  9. 1 2 Eckenwalder, James E. (1993). "Cupressus macrocarpa". In Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.). Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). Vol. 2. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
  10. 1 2 3 4 K. Rushforth (1987). Conifers. Helm. ISBN   0-7470-2801-X.
  11. ↑ Harrison, Lorraine (2012). RHS Latin for Gardeners. United Kingdom: Mitchell Beazley. ISBN   978-1845337315.
  12. ↑ Willis Linn Jepson (1923). The Trees of California (2nd ed.). University of California Press. p. 75.
  13. ↑ Willis Linn Jepson (1919). "Appendix I: scientific notes on the Monterey cypress". In Joseph H. Engbeck (ed.). Point Lobos Reserve State Park, California: Interpretation of a Primitive Landscape. University of California. pp. 86–87.
  14. ↑ S.W. Burstall & E.V. Sale (1984). Great Trees of New Zealand. A.H. & A.W. Reed Ltd. p. 95. ISBN   0-589-01532-X.
  15. ↑ "Tree Information". The Zealand Tree Register. Retrieved 30 January 2020.
  16. ↑ Hartweg, Karl Theodor (1847). "Journal of a Mission to California in Search of Plants Part. III". The Journal of the Horticultural Society of London. 2. London: 187. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
  17. ↑ Damon P. Little (2006). "Evolution and circumscription of the true cypresses (Cupressaceae: Cupressus)". Systematic Botany . 31 (3): 461–480. doi:10.1600/036364406778388638. JSTOR   25064176.
  18. ↑ Robert P. Adams; Jim A. Bartel; Robert A. Price (2009). "A new genus, Hesperocyparis, for the cypresses of the Western Hemisphere" (PDF). Phytologia . 91 (1): 160–185.
  19. ↑ Terry, R. G., & Adams, R. P. (2015). A molecular re-examination of phylogenetic relationships among Juniperus, Cupressus, and the Hesperocyparis-Callitropsis-Xanthocyparis clades of Cupressaceae. Phytologia, 97(1), 66-74.
  20. ↑ Yang, Z. Y., Ran, J. H., & Wang, X. Q. (2012). Three genome-based phylogeny of Cupressaceae sl: further evidence for the evolution of gymnosperms and Southern Hemisphere biogeography. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 64(3), 452-470.
  21. 1 2 Terry, R. G., Pyne, M. I., Bartel, J. A., & Adams, R. P. (2016). A molecular biogeography of the New World cypresses (Callitropsis, Hesperocyparis; Cupressaceae). Plant Systematics and Evolution, 302(7), 921-942.
  22. ↑ "Cupressus macrocarpa". Flora Europaea. Edinburgh: Royal Botanical Garden. 2008.
  23. ↑ "Monterey cypress in Sri Lanka". 18 June 2013.
  24. ↑ Sim, Thomas Robertson (1905). Tree Planting in Natal. Natal. Dept. of Agriculture. Bulletin, 7. Pietermaritzburg : P. Davis.
  25. ↑ Dunn, Malcolm (1892). "The Value in the British Islands of Introduced Conifers". Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society. 14. London: Royal Horticultural Society: 90. Retrieved 12 February 2024.
  26. ↑ "Lands End Poster". Golden Gate National Parks Conservancy. Retrieved 2 April 2021.
  27. ↑ "Golden Gate Park". GoldenGatePark.com. Retrieved 2 April 2021.
  28. ↑ W. W. Wagener (1948). "Diseases of Cypresses". El Aliso . 1: 253–321.
  29. ↑ V. Sloss; J. W. Brady (1983). "Abnormal births in cattle following ingestion of Cupressus macrocarpa foliage". Australian Veterinary Journal . 60 (7): 223. doi:10.1111/j.1751-0813.1983.tb09593.x. PMID   6639522.
  30. ↑ "The New Zealand Tree Register".
  31. ↑ "Cupressus macropcarpa 'Goldcrest'". Royal Horticultural Society. Retrieved 2020-04-17.
  32. ↑ "AGM Plants - Ornamental" (PDF). Royal Horticultural Society. July 2017. p. 22. Retrieved 24 January 2018.
  33. ↑ Staney J. Palmer (1990). Palmer's Manual of Trees, Shrubs and Climbers. Lancewood Publishing. ISBN   0-7316-9415-5.
  34. ↑ K. Parton; D. Gardner; N. B. Williamson (1996). "Isocupressic acid, an abortifacient component of Cupressus macrocarpa". New Zealand Veterinary Journal . 44 (3): 109–111. doi:10.1080/00480169.1996.35946. PMID   16031906.
  35. ↑ Eugene Zavarin; Lorraine Lawrence; Mary C. Thomas (1971). "Compositional variations of leaf monoterpenes in Cupressus macrocarpa, C. pygmaea, C. goveniana, C. abramsiana and C. sargentii". Phytochemistry . 10 (2): 379–393. Bibcode:1971PChem..10..379Z. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(00)94053-6.
  36. ↑ Rubén A. Malizia; Daniel A. Cardell; José S. Molli; Silvia González; Pedro E. Guerra; Ricardo J. Grau (2000). "Volatile constituents of leaf oils from the Cupressaceae family: Part I. Cupressus macrocarpa Hartw., C. arizonica Greene and C. torulosa Don species growing in Argentina". Journal of Essential Oil Research . 12 (1): 59–63. doi:10.1080/10412905.2000.9712042. S2CID   94802464.
  37. ↑ Laurence G. Cool (2005). "Sesquiterpenes from Cupressus macrocarpa foliage". Phytochemistry . 66 (2): 249–260. Bibcode:2005PChem..66..249C. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2004.11.002. PMID   15652582.
  38. ↑ Steven C. Welch; Roland L. Walters (1973). "Total syntheses of (+)-longicamphor and (+)-longiborneol". Synthetic Communications . 3 (6): 419–423. doi:10.1080/00397917308065935.
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