Invertebrate zoology

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Invertebrate zoology is the subdiscipline of zoology that consists of the study of invertebrates, animals without a backbone (a structure which is found only in fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals).

Contents

Invertebrates are a vast and very diverse group of animals that includes sponges, echinoderms, tunicates, numerous different phyla of worms, molluscs, arthropods and many additional phyla. Single-celled organisms or protists are usually not included within the same group as invertebrates.

Subdivisions

Invertebrates represent 97% of all named animal species, [1] and because of that fact, this subdivision of zoology has many further subdivisions, including but not limited to:

These divisions are sometimes further divided into more specific specialties. For example, within arachnology, acarology is the study of mites and ticks; within entomology, lepidoptery is the study of butterflies and moths, myrmecology is the study of ants and so on. Marine invertebrates are all those invertebrates that exist in marine habitats.

History

Early Modern Era

In the early modern period starting in the late 16th century, invertebrate zoology saw growth in the number of publications made and improvement in the experimental practices associated with the field. (Insects are one of the most diverse groups of organisms on Earth. They play important roles in ecosystems, including pollination, natural enemies, saprophytes, and biological information transfer.)

One of the major works to be published in the area of zoology was Conrad Gessner's Historia animalium, which was published in numerous editions from 1551 to 1587. Though it was a work more generally addressing zoology in the large sense, it did contain information on insect life. Much of the information came from older works; Gessner restated the work of Pliny the Elder and Aristotle while mixing old knowledge of the natural history of insects with his own observations. [2]

With the invention of the Microscope in 1599 came a new way of observing the small creatures that fall under the umbrella of invertebrate. Robert Hooke, who worked out of the Royal Society in England, conducted observation of insects—including some of their larval forms—and other invertebrates, such as ticks. His Micrographia, published in 1665, included illustrations and written descriptions of the things he saw under the microscope. [3]

Others also worked with the microscope following its acceptance as a scientific tool. Francesco Redi, an Italian physician and naturalist, used a microscope for observation of invertebrates, but is known for his work in disproving the theory of spontaneous generation. Redi managed to prove that flies did not spontaneously arise from rotting meat. He conducted controlled experiments and detailed observation of the fly life cycle in order to do so. Redi also worked in the description and illustration of parasites for both plants and animals. [4]

Other men were also conducting research into pests and parasites at this time. Felix Plater, a Swiss physician, worked to differentiate between two types of tape worm. He also wrote descriptions of both the worms he observed and the effects these worms had on their hosts. [4]

Following the publication of Francis Bacon's ideas about the value of experimentation in the sciences came a shift toward true experimental efforts in the biological sciences, including invertebrate zoology. Jan Swammerdam, a Dutch microscopist, supported an effort to work for a 'modern' science over blind belief in the work of ancient philosophers. He worked—like Redi—to disprove spontaneous generation using experimental techniques. Swammerdam also made a number of advancements in the study of anatomy and physiology. In the field of entomology, he conducted a number of dissections of insects and made detailed observations of the internal structures of these specimens. [5] Swammerdam also worked on a classification of insects based on life histories; he managed to contribute to the literature proving that an egg, larva, pupa, and adult are indeed the same individual. [6]

18th and 19th centuries

In the 18th century, the study of invertebrates focused on the naming of species that were relevant to economic pursuits, such as agricultural pests. Entomology was changing in big ways very quickly, as many naturalists and zoologists were working with hexapods. [7]

Work was also being done in the realm of parasitology and the study of worms. A French physician named Nicolas Andry de Bois-Regard determined that worms were the cause of some diseases. He also declared that worms do not spontaneously form within the animal or human gut; de Bois-Regard stated that there must be some kind of 'seed' which enters the body and contains the worm in some form. [7] Antonio Vallisneri also worked with parasitic worms, specifically members of the genera Ascaris and Neoascaris. He found that these worms came from eggs. In addition, Vallisneri worked to elucidate the reproduction of insects, specifically the sawfly. [7]

In 1735, the first edition of Carl Linnaeus' Systema Naturae was published; this work included information on both insects and intestinal worms. [7] However, the tenth edition is considered the true starting point for the modern classification scheme for living things today. [8] Linnaeus' universal system of classification made a system based on binomial nomenclature, but included higher levels of classification than simply the genus and species names. [9] Systema Naturae was an investigation into the biodiversity on Earth. [8] However, because it was based only on very few characters, the system developed by Linnaeus was an artificial one. [10] The book also included descriptions of the organisms named inside of it. [9]

In 1859, Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published. In this book, he described his theory of evolution by natural selection. Both the work of Darwin and his contemporary, Alfred Russel Wallace —who was also working on the theory of evolution—were informed by the careful study of insects. [11] In addition, Darwin collected many species of invertebrate during his time aboard HMS Beagle; many of the specimens collected were insects. Using these collections, he was able to study sexual dimorphism, geographic distribution of species, and mimicry; all of these concepts influenced Darwin's theory of evolution. Unfortunately, a firm popular belief in the immutability of species was a major hurdle in the acceptance of the theory. [12]

20th century

Classification in the twentieth century shifted toward a focus on evolutionary relationships over morphological description. The development of phylogenetics and systematics based on this study is credited to Willi Hennig, a German entomologist. In 1966, his Phylogenetic Systematics was published; inside, Hennig redefined the goals of systematic schemes for classifying living things. He proposed that the focus be on evolutionary relationships over similar morphological features. He also defined monophyly and included his ideas about hierarchical classification. Though Hennig did not include information on outgroup comparison, he was apparently aware of the practice, which is considered important to today's systematic research. [13]

Notable invertebrates

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Invertebrate</span> Animals without a vertebral column

Invertebrates are a paraphyletic group of animals that neither possess nor develop a vertebral column, derived from the notochord. This is a grouping including all animals apart from the chordate subphylum Vertebrata. Familiar examples of invertebrates include arthropods, mollusks, annelids, echinoderms and cnidarians.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Taxonomy (biology)</span> Science of naming, defining and classifying organisms

In biology, taxonomy is the scientific study of naming, defining (circumscribing) and classifying groups of biological organisms based on shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped into taxa and these groups are given a taxonomic rank; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a more inclusive group of higher rank, thus creating a taxonomic hierarchy. The principal ranks in modern use are domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus is regarded as the founder of the current system of taxonomy, as he developed a ranked system known as Linnaean taxonomy for categorizing organisms and binomial nomenclature for naming organisms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Willi Hennig</span> German biologist and zoologist (1913–1976)

Emil Hans Willi Hennig was a German biologist and zoologist who is considered the founder of phylogenetic systematics, otherwise known as cladistics. In 1945 as a prisoner of war, Hennig began work on his theory of cladistics, which he published in German in 1950, with a substantially revised English translation published in 1966. With his works on evolution and systematics he revolutionised the view of the natural order of beings. As a taxonomist, he specialised in dipterans.

Zoology is the branch of biology that studies the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct, and how they interact with their ecosystems. The term is derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον, zōion ('animal'), and λόγος, logos.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Entomology</span> Scientific study of insects

Entomology is the scientific study of insects, a branch of zoology. In the past the term "insect" was less specific, and historically the definition of entomology would also include the study of animals in other arthropod groups, such as arachnids, myriapods, and crustaceans. This wider meaning may still be encountered in informal use.

Vermes ("worms") is an obsolete taxon used by Carl Linnaeus and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck for non-arthropod invertebrate animals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jan Swammerdam</span> Dutch biologist and microscopist

Jan Swammerdam was a Dutch biologist and microscopist. His work on insects demonstrated that the various phases during the life of an insect—egg, larva, pupa, and adult—are different forms of the same animal. As part of his anatomical research, he carried out experiments on muscle contraction. In 1658, he was the first to observe and describe red blood cells. He was one of the first people to use the microscope in dissections, and his techniques remained useful for hundreds of years.

The history of zoology before Charles Darwin's 1859 theory of evolution traces the organized study of the animal kingdom from ancient to modern times. Although the concept of zoology as a single coherent field arose much later, systematic study of zoology is seen in the works of Aristotle and Galen in the ancient Greco-Roman world. This work was developed in the Middle Ages by Islamic medicine and scholarship, and in turn their work was extended by European scholars such as Albertus Magnus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Johan Christian Fabricius</span> Danish zoologist (1745–1808)

Johan Christian Fabricius was a Danish zoologist, specialising in "Insecta", which at that time included all arthropods: insects, arachnids, crustaceans and others. He was a student of Carl Linnaeus, and is considered one of the most important entomologists of the 18th century, having named nearly 10,000 species of animals, and established the basis for the modern insect classification.

William Elford Leach FRS was an English zoologist and marine biologist.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alpheus Spring Packard</span>

Alpheus Spring Packard Jr. LL.D. was an American entomologist and palaeontologist. He described over 500 new animal species – especially butterflies and moths – and was one of the founders of The American Naturalist.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Giacinto Cestoni</span> Italian naturalist

Diacinto Cestoni was an Italian naturalist, biologist, botanist, entomologist. Born in Montegiorgio, he was self-taught. He lived and worked at Livorno where he led an apothecary next to the port. He studied insects, animals, plants and drugs. Cestoni showed that scabies is caused by Sarcoptes scabiei.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to zoology:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine invertebrates</span> Marine animals without a vertebrate column

Marine invertebrates are the invertebrates that live in marine habitats. Invertebrate is a blanket term that includes all animals apart from the vertebrate members of the chordate phylum. Invertebrates lack a vertebral column, and some have evolved a shell or a hard exoskeleton. As on land and in the air, marine invertebrates have a large variety of body plans, and have been categorised into over 30 phyla. They make up most of the macroscopic life in the oceans.

This is a chronologically organized listing of notable zoological events and discoveries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Worm</span> Limbless invertebrate animal

Worms are many different distantly related bilateral animals that typically have a long cylindrical tube-like body, no limbs, and no eyes.

10th edition of <i>Systema Naturae</i> Book by Carl Linnaeus

The 10th edition of Systema Naturae is a book written by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus and published in two volumes in 1758 and 1759, which marks the starting point of zoological nomenclature. In it, Linnaeus introduced binomial nomenclature for animals, something he had already done for plants in his 1753 publication of Species Plantarum.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Crustacean</span> Subphylum of arthropods

Crustaceans form a large, diverse arthropod taxon which includes such animals as decapods, seed shrimp, branchiopods, fish lice, krill, remipedes, isopods, barnacles, copepods, amphipods and mantis shrimp. The crustacean group can be treated as a subphylum under the clade Mandibulata. It is now well accepted that the hexapods emerged deep in the Crustacean group, with the completed group referred to as Pancrustacea. Some crustaceans are more closely related to insects and the other hexapods than they are to certain other crustaceans.

<i>Le Règne Animal</i> Book by Georges Cuvier

Le Règne Animal is the most famous work of the French naturalist Georges Cuvier. It sets out to describe the natural structure of the whole of the animal kingdom based on comparative anatomy, and its natural history. Cuvier divided the animals into four embranchements, namely vertebrates, molluscs, articulated animals, and zoophytes.

References

  1. ↑ May, Robert M. (16 September 1988). "How Many Species Are There on Earth?". Science. 241 (4872): 1441–1449. doi:10.1126/science.241.4872.1441. JSTOR   1702670. PMID   17790039.
  2. ↑ Weiss, Harry B. (1927-01-01). "Four Encyclopedic Entomologists of the Renaissance". Journal of the New York Entomological Society. 35 (2): 193–207. JSTOR   25004198.
  3. ↑ NERI, JANICE (2008-01-01). "Between Observation and Image: Representations of Insects in Robert Hooke's "Micrographia"". Studies in the History of Art. 69: 82–107. JSTOR   42622433.
  4. 1 2 Egerton, Frank N. (2005-01-01). "A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 17: Invertebrate Zoology and Parasitology during the 1600s". Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America. 86 (3): 133–144. doi:10.1890/0012-9623(2005)86[133:AHOTES]2.0.CO;2. JSTOR   bullecosociamer.86.3.133.
  5. ↑ Cobb, Matthew (2000-09-01). "Reading and writing The Book of Nature: Jan Swammerdam (1637–1680)". Endeavour. 24 (3): 122–128. doi:10.1016/S0160-9327(00)01306-5.
  6. ↑ Beier, Max. "The Early Naturalists and Anatomists During the Renaissance and Seventeenth Century." In History of Entomology, edited by Ray F. Smith, Thomas E. Mittler, and Carroll N. Smith, 90. Palo Alto: Annual Reviews, Inc, 1973.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Egerton, Frank N. (2008-10-01). "A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 30: Invertebrate Zoology and Parasitology During the 1700s". The Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America. 89 (4): 407–433. doi:10.1890/0012-9623(2008)89[407:AHOTES]2.0.CO;2. ISSN   2327-6096.
  8. 1 2 Reid, Gordon McGregor (2009-01-01). "Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778): His Life, Philosophy and Science and Its Relationship to Modern Biology and Medicine". Taxon. 58 (1): 18–31. doi:10.1002/tax.581005. JSTOR   27756820.
  9. 1 2 Winsor, Mary P. (1976-01-01). "The Development of Linnaean Insect Classification". Taxon. 25 (1): 57–67. doi:10.2307/1220406. JSTOR   1220406.
  10. ↑ Tuxen, S L. "Entomology Systematizes and Describes: 1700-1815." In History of Entomology, edited by Ray F. Smith, Thomas E. Mittler, and Carroll N. Smith, 107. Palo Alto: Annual Reviews, Inc, 1973.
  11. ↑ Ross, Herbert H. "Evolution and Phylogeny." In History of Entomology, edited by Ray F. Smith, Thomas E. Mittler, and Carroll N. Smith, 171-84. Palo Alto: Annual Reviews, Inc, 1973.
  12. ↑ Clark, John F. Bugs and the Victorians. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009.
  13. ↑ Richter, Stefan; Meier, Rudolf (1994-01-01). "The Development of Phylogenetic Concepts in Hennig's Early Theoretical Publications (1947-1966)". Systematic Biology. 43 (2): 212–221. doi:10.2307/2413462. JSTOR   2413462.
  14. ↑ "Japanese Spider Crab - Macrocheira kaempferi - Details - Encyclopedia of Life". Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
  15. ↑ "Lion's Mane Jellyfish - Cyanea capillata - Details - Encyclopedia of Life". Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
  16. ↑ "Oceanic Squid - Architeuthis dux - Details - Encyclopedia of Life". Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
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