List of solar storms

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A coronal mass ejection (CME) Coronal Cloud 1.jpg
A coronal mass ejection (CME)

Solar storms of different types are caused by disturbances on the Sun, most often from coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and solar flares from active regions, or, less often, from coronal holes. Minor to active solar storms (i.e. storming restricted to higher latitudes) may occur under elevated background solar wind conditions when the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) orientation is southward, toward the Earth (which also leads to much stronger storming conditions from CME-related sources). [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

Contents

Background

Active stars produce disturbances in space weather and, if strong enough, in their own space climate. Science studies such phenomena with the field of heliophysics, which is an interdisciplinary combination of solar physics and planetary science.

In the Solar System, the Sun can produce intense geomagnetic and energetic particle storms capable of causing severe damage to technology. It can result in large scale power outages, disruption or blackouts of radio communications (including GPS), damage or destruction of submarine communications cables, [6] and temporary to permanent disabling of satellites and other electronics. Intense solar storms may also be hazardous to high-latitude, high-altitude aviation [7] and to human spaceflight. [8] Geomagnetic storms are the cause of aurora. [9] The most significant known solar storm, across the most parameters, occurred in September 1859 and is known as the "Carrington event". [10] The damage from the most potent solar storms is capable of existentially threatening the stability of modern human civilization, [11] [8] although proper preparedness and mitigation can substantially reduce the hazards. [12] [13]

Proxy data from Earth, as well as analysis of stars similar to the Sun, suggest that the Sun may be also capable of producing so called superflares, which are as much as 1000x stronger than any flares in the historical record. [14] [15] [16] Other research, like models of solar flares [17] and statistics of extreme solar events reconstructed using cosmogenic isotope data in terrestrial archives, indicate otherwise. [18] The discrepancy is not yet resolved and may be related to a biased statistic of the stellar population of solar analogs. [19]

Coronal mass ejections and solar particle events

Events affecting Earth

Proxy evidence

This section contains a list of possible events that are indicated by indirect, or proxy data. The scientific value of such data remains unresolved. [20] [21]

  • 12400–12399 BCE Probable Miyake event, which would be the largest known and twice the 774–775 event. [22]
  • 7176 BCE Found in beryllium-10 (and other isotopes) spike in ice cores and corroborated by tree rings. [23] It unexpectedly appears to have occurred near a Solar minimum [23] and was as strong as, or probably even slightly stronger than the famous 774–775 CE event.
  • c. 5410 BCE [24]
  • 5259 BCE Found in beryllium-10 spike in ice cores and corroborated by tree rings. At least as strong as the 774–775 event. [25]
  • c. 660 BCE [26] [27]
  • 774–775 CE [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] This extreme solar proton event is the first identified Miyake event. It caused the largest and most rapid rise in carbon-14 levels ever recorded. [33]
  • 993–994 CE [34] [31] [35] It caused a carbon-14 spike visible in tree rings which was used to date Viking archaeological remains in L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland to 1021. [36]
  • 1052 CE found in carbon-14 spike [37]
  • 1279 CE found in carbon-14 spike [37]

Direct measurements and/or visual observations

DateEventSignificance
Mar 1582Great magnetic storms of March 1582Prolonged severe-extreme geomagnetic storm produced aurora to 28.8° magnetic latitude (MLAT) and ≈33.0° invariant latitude (ILAT). [38] [39]
Feb 1730At least as intense as the 1989 event but less intense than the Carrington event [40]
Sep 1770 [41] [42] [43]
Sep 1859 Carrington Event The most extreme storm ever documented by most measures; telegraph machines reportedly shocked operators and caused small fires; aurorae visible in tropical areas; first solidly established connection of flares to geomagnetic disturbances. Extreme storming directly preceded this event in late August.
Feb 1872Chapman–Silverman stormminimal Dst* ≤ −834 nT [44] [45]
Nov 1882 November 1882 geomagnetic storm [46]
Oct 1903Solar storm of Oct-Nov 1903An extreme storm, estimated at Dst -531 nT arose from a fast CME (mean ≈1500 km/s), occurred during the ascending phase of the minimum of the relatively weak solar cycle 14, which is the most significant storm on record in a solar minimum period. Aurora was conservatively observed to ≈44.1° ILAT, and widespread disruptions and overcharging of telegraph systems occurred. [47] [48]
Sep 1909Geomagnetic storm of September 1909Dst calculated to have reached -595 nT, comparable to the March 1989 event [49]
May 1921 May 1921 geomagnetic storm Among most extreme known geomagnetic storms; farthest equatorward (lowest latitude) aurora ever documented; [50] burned out fuses, electrical apparatus, and telephone station; caused fires at signal tower and telegraph station; total communications blackouts lasting several hours. [51] A paper in 2019 estimates intensity of −907±132 nT. [52]
Jan 1938 January 1938 geomagnetic storm or the Fátima storm
Mar 1940March 1940 superstormTriggered by an X35±1 solar flare. [53] Caused significant interference to United States communication systems. [54]
Sep 1941 [55]
Mar 1946Geomagnetic storm of March 1946Est. Dstm of -512 nT [56] [57]
Feb 1956 [58] [59] [60]
Sep 1957Geomagnetic storm of September 1957 [61] [62]
Feb 1958Geomagnetic storm of February 1958 [61] [62]
Jul 1959Geomagnetic storm of July 1959 [61] [63]
May 1967Blackout of polar surveillance radars during Cold War led U.S. military to scramble for nuclear war until solar origin confirmed [64]
Oct 1968 [65] [66]
Aug 1972 August 1972 solar storm Fastest CME transit time recorded; most extreme solar particle event (SPE) by some measures and the most hazardous to human spaceflight during the Space Age; severe technological disruptions, caused accidental detonation of numerous magnetic-influence sea mines [67]
Mar 1989 March 1989 geomagnetic storm Most extreme storm of the Space Age by several measures. Outed power grid of province of Quebec. [68] Caused interference to United States power grid. [69]
Aug 1989 [70]
Nov 1991Geomagnetic storm of November 1991An intense solar storm with about half the energy output of the March 1989 storm. Aurorae were visible in the US as far south as Texas [71] [72]
Apr 2000 [73]
Jul 2000 Bastille Day solar storm
Apr 2001A solar flare from a sunspot region associated with this activity and preceding this period produced the then largest flare detected during the Space Age at about X20 (the first event to saturate spaceborne monitoring instruments, this was exceeded in 2003) but was directed away from Earth. [73] [74]
Nov 2001Geomagnetic storm of November 2001A fast-moving CME triggered vivid aurorae as far south as Texas, California, and Florida [75]
Oct 2003 2003 Halloween solar storms Among top few most intense storms of the Space Age; aurora visible as far south as Texas and the Mediterranean countries of Europe. A solar flare with x-ray flux estimated to be around X45 occurred from an associated active region on 4 November but was directed away from Earth. [76] [77] [78] [79] [80]
Nov 2003Solar storms of November 20032021 study estimated Dstm of -533 nT [56] [61]
Jan 2005The most intense solar flare in 15 years with sunspot 720 erupting, 5 times from the 15th to 20th. [81] [82]
Mar 2015St. Patrick's Day stormLargest geomagnetic storm of solar cycle 24, driven by IMF variations [83] [84] [85] [86]
Sep 2017Triggered by an X8.2 class solar flare [87] [88] [89] [90]
Feb 2022A mild solar particle and geomagnetic storm of otherwise little consequence [91] led to the premature reentry and destruction of 40 SpaceX Starlink satellites launched February 3, 2022 due to increased atmospheric drag. [92]
30 April – 12 May 2024 May 2024 solar storms X1.2(X1.3)-class flares [93] and X4.5-class flare [94] . The flares with a magnitude of 6–7 occurred between 30 April and 4 May 2024. On 5 May the strength of the solar storm reached 5 points, which is considered strong according to the K-index. The rapidly growing sunspot AR3663 became the most active spot of the 25th solar cycle. On 5 May alone, it emitted two X-class (strongest) flares and six M-class (medium) flares. Each of these flares resulted in a short-term but profound disconnection of the Earth's radio signal, resulting in signal loss at frequencies below 30 MHz [95]

An extreme (G5) geomagnetic storm alert was issued by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) – the first since October 2003 [96] [97]

Events not affecting Earth

The above events affected Earth (and its vicinity, known as the magnetosphere), whereas the following events were directed elsewhere in the Solar System and were detected by monitoring spacecraft or other means.

Date(s)EventSignificance
23 July 2012 July 2012 solar storm Ultrafast CME directed away from Earth with characteristics that may have made it a Carrington-class storm [98] [99] [100] [101] [102]

Soft X-ray solar flares

Solar flares are intense localized eruptions of electromagnetic radiation in the Sun's atmosphere. They are often classified based on the peak flux of soft X-rays (SXR) measured by the GOES spacecraft in geosynchronous orbit (see Solar flare § Soft X-ray classification).

The following table lists the largest flares in this respect since June 1996, the beginning of solar cycle 23. [103] [104]

No. SXR Class Date Solar cycle Active region Time (UTC)Notes
StartMaxEnd
1>X28+2003-11-04231048619:2919:5320:06Associated with the 2003 Halloween solar storms
2X202001-04-0223939321:3221:5122:03
3X17.22003-10-28231048609:5111:1011:24Associated with the 2003 Halloween solar storms
4X172005-09-07231080817:1717:4018:03
5X14.42001-04-1523941513:1913:5013:55
6X102003-10-29231048620:3720:4921:01Associated with the 2003 Halloween solar storms
7X9.41997-11-0623810011:4911:5512:01
8X9.32017-09-06241267311:5312:0212:10
9X9.02006-12-05231093010:1810:3510:45
10X8.32003-11-02231048617:0317:2517:39Associated with the 2003 Halloween solar storms

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar wind</span> Stream of charged particles from the Sun

The solar wind is a stream of charged particles released from the upper atmosphere of the Sun, called the corona. This plasma mostly consists of electrons, protons and alpha particles with kinetic energy between 0.5 and 10 keV. The composition of the solar wind plasma also includes a mixture of materials found in the solar plasma: trace amounts of heavy ions and atomic nuclei of elements such as Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Neon, Magesium, Silicon, Sulfur, and Iron. There are also rarer traces of some other nuclei and isotopes such as Phosphorus, Titanium, Chromium, and 58Ni, 60Ni, and 62Ni. Superimposed with the solar-wind plasma is the interplanetary magnetic field. The solar wind varies in density, temperature and speed over time and over solar latitude and longitude. Its particles can escape the Sun's gravity because of their high energy resulting from the high temperature of the corona, which in turn is a result of the coronal magnetic field. The boundary separating the corona from the solar wind is called the Alfvén surface.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aurora</span> Natural luminous atmospheric effect observed chiefly at high latitudes

An aurora , also commonly known as the northern lights or southern lights, is a natural light display in Earth's sky, predominantly seen in high-latitude regions. Auroras display dynamic patterns of brilliant lights that appear as curtains, rays, spirals, or dynamic flickers covering the entire sky.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar flare</span> Eruption of electromagnetic radiation

A solar flare is a relatively intense, localized emission of electromagnetic radiation in the Sun's atmosphere. Flares occur in active regions and are often, but not always, accompanied by coronal mass ejections, solar particle events, and other eruptive solar phenomena. The occurrence of solar flares varies with the 11-year solar cycle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Space weather</span> Branch of space physics and aeronomy

Space weather is a branch of space physics and aeronomy, or heliophysics, concerned with the varying conditions within the Solar System and its heliosphere. This includes the effects of the solar wind, especially on the Earth's magnetosphere, ionosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. Though physically distinct, space weather is analogous to the terrestrial weather of Earth's atmosphere. The term "space weather" was first used in the 1950s and popularized in the 1990s. Later, it prompted research into "space climate", the large-scale and long-term patterns of space weather.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geomagnetic storm</span> Disturbance of the Earths magnetosphere

A geomagnetic storm, also known as a magnetic storm, is a temporary disturbance of the Earth's magnetosphere caused by a solar wind shock wave.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Whistler (radio)</span> Very low frequency EM waves generated by lightning

A whistler is a very low frequency (VLF) electromagnetic (radio) wave generated by lightning. Frequencies of terrestrial whistlers are 1 kHz to 30 kHz, with maximum frequencies usually at 3 kHz to 5 kHz. Although they are electromagnetic waves, they occur at audio frequencies, and can be converted to audio using a suitable receiver. They are produced by lightning strikes where the impulse travels along the Earth's magnetic field lines from one hemisphere to the other. They undergo dispersion of several kHz due to the slower velocity of the lower frequencies through the plasma environments of the ionosphere and magnetosphere. Thus they are perceived as a descending tone which can last for a few seconds. The study of whistlers categorizes them into Pure Note, Diffuse, 2-Hop, and Echo Train types.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar cycle</span> Periodic change in the Suns activity

The solar cycle, also known as the solar magnetic activity cycle, sunspot cycle, or Schwabe cycle, is a nearly periodic 11-year change in the Sun's activity measured in terms of variations in the number of observed sunspots on the Sun's surface. Over the period of a solar cycle, levels of solar radiation and ejection of solar material, the number and size of sunspots, solar flares, and coronal loops all exhibit a synchronized fluctuation from a period of minimum activity to a period of a maximum activity back to a period of minimum activity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coronal mass ejection</span> Ejecta from the Suns corona

A coronal mass ejection (CME) is a significant ejection of magnetic field and accompanying plasma mass from the Sun's corona into the heliosphere. CMEs are often associated with solar flares and other forms of solar activity, but a broadly accepted theoretical understanding of these relationships has not been established.

A solar storm is a disturbance on the Sun, which can emanate outward across the heliosphere, affecting the entire Solar System, including Earth and its magnetosphere, and is the cause of space weather in the short-term with long-term patterns comprising space climate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cluster II (spacecraft)</span> European Space Agency mission

Cluster II is a space mission of the European Space Agency, with NASA participation, to study the Earth's magnetosphere over the course of nearly two solar cycles. The mission is composed of four identical spacecraft flying in a tetrahedral formation. As a replacement for the original Cluster spacecraft which were lost in a launch failure in 1996, the four Cluster II spacecraft were successfully launched in pairs in July and August 2000 onboard two Soyuz-Fregat rockets from Baikonur, Kazakhstan. In February 2011, Cluster II celebrated 10 years of successful scientific operations in space. In February 2021, Cluster II celebrated 20 years of successful scientific operations in space. As of March 2023, its mission has been extended until September 2024. The China National Space Administration/ESA Double Star mission operated alongside Cluster II from 2004 to 2007.

A sudden ionospheric disturbance (SID) is any one of several ionospheric perturbations, resulting from abnormally high ionization/plasma density in the D region of the ionosphere and caused by a solar flare and/or solar particle event (SPE). The SID results in a sudden increase in radio-wave absorption that is most severe in the upper medium frequency (MF) and lower high frequency (HF) ranges, and as a result often interrupts or interferes with telecommunications systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ionospheric storm</span>

Ionospheric storms are storms which contain varying densities of energised electrons in the ionosphere as produced from the Sun. Ionospheric storms are caused by geomagnetic storms. They are categorised into positive and negative storms, where positive storms have a high density of electrons and negative storms contain a lower density. The total electron content (TEC) is used to measure these densities, and is a key variable used in data to record and compare the intensities of ionospheric storms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carrington Event</span> Geomagnetic storm in 1859

The Carrington Event was the most intense geomagnetic storm in recorded history, peaking from 1–2 September 1859 during solar cycle 10. It created strong auroral displays that were reported globally and caused sparking and even fires in multiple telegraph stations. The geomagnetic storm was most likely the result of a coronal mass ejection (CME) from the Sun colliding with Earth's magnetosphere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">March 1989 geomagnetic storm</span> An exceptionally powerful geomagnetic storm that struck the Earth on March 13, 1989

The March 1989 geomagnetic storm occurred as part of severe to extreme solar storms during early to mid March 1989, the most notable being a geomagnetic storm that struck Earth on March 13. This geomagnetic storm caused a nine-hour outage of Hydro-Québec's electricity transmission system. The onset time was exceptionally rapid. Other historically significant solar storms occurred later in 1989, during a very active period of solar cycle 22.

Superflares are very strong explosions observed on stars with energies up to ten thousand times that of typical solar flares. The stars in this class satisfy conditions which should make them solar analogues, and would be expected to be stable over very long time scales. The original nine candidates were detected by a variety of methods. No systematic study was possible until the launch of the Kepler space telescope, which monitored a very large number of solar-type stars with very high accuracy for an extended period. This showed that a small proportion of stars had violent outbursts. In many cases there were multiple events on the same star. Younger stars were more likely to flare than old ones, but strong events were seen on stars as old as the Sun.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">May 1921 geomagnetic storm</span> An exceptionally powerful geomagnetic storm that struck the Earth from 13-15 May 1921

The three-day May 1921 geomagnetic storm, also known as the New York Railroad Storm, was caused by the impact of an extraordinarily powerful coronal mass ejection on Earth's magnetosphere. It occurred on 13–15 May as part of solar cycle 15, and was the most intense geomagnetic storm of the 20th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar particle event</span> Solar phenomenon

In solar physics, a solar particle event (SPE), also known as a solar energetic particle event or solar radiation storm, is a solar phenomenon which occurs when particles emitted by the Sun, mostly protons, become accelerated either in the Sun's atmosphere during a solar flare or in interplanetary space by a coronal mass ejection shock. Other nuclei such as helium and HZE ions may also be accelerated during the event. These particles can penetrate the Earth's magnetic field and cause partial ionization of the ionosphere. Energetic protons are a significant radiation hazard to spacecraft and astronauts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Solar phenomena</span> Natural phenomena within the Suns atmosphere

Solar phenomena are natural phenomena which occur within the atmosphere of the Sun. They take many forms, including solar wind, radio wave flux, solar flares, coronal mass ejections, coronal heating and sunspots.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">August 1972 solar storms</span> Solar storms during solar cycle 20

The solar storms of August 1972 were a historically powerful series of solar storms with intense to extreme solar flare, solar particle event, and geomagnetic storm components in early August 1972, during solar cycle 20. The storm caused widespread electric‐ and communication‐grid disturbances through large portions of North America as well as satellite disruptions. On 4 August 1972 the storm caused the accidental detonation of numerous U.S. naval mines near Haiphong, North Vietnam. The coronal mass ejection (CME)'s transit time from the Sun to the Earth is the fastest ever recorded.

Solar radio emission refers to radio waves that are naturally produced by the Sun, primarily from the lower and upper layers of the atmosphere called the chromosphere and corona, respectively. The Sun produces radio emissions through four known mechanisms, each of which operates primarily by converting the energy of moving electrons into electromagnetic radiation. The four emission mechanisms are thermal bremsstrahlung (braking) emission, gyromagnetic emission, plasma emission, and electron-cyclotron maser emission. The first two are incoherent mechanisms, which means that they are the summation of radiation generated independently by many individual particles. These mechanisms are primarily responsible for the persistent "background" emissions that slowly vary as structures in the atmosphere evolve. The latter two processes are coherent mechanisms, which refers to special cases where radiation is efficiently produced at a particular set of frequencies. Coherent mechanisms can produce much larger brightness temperatures (intensities) and are primarily responsible for the intense spikes of radiation called solar radio bursts, which are byproducts of the same processes that lead to other forms of solar activity like solar flares and coronal mass ejections.

References

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