Megathrust earthquake

Last updated

Megathrust earthquakes occur at convergent plate boundaries, where one tectonic plate is forced underneath another. The earthquakes are caused by slip along the thrust fault that forms the contact between the two plates. These interplate earthquakes are the planet's most powerful, with moment magnitudes (Mw) that can exceed 9.0. [1] [2] Since 1900, all earthquakes of magnitude 9.0 or greater have been megathrust earthquakes. [3]

Contents

The thrust faults responsible for megathrust earthquakes often lie at the bottom of oceanic trenches; in such cases, the earthquakes can abruptly displace the sea floor over a large area. As a result, megathrust earthquakes often generate tsunamis that are considerably more destructive than the earthquakes themselves. Teletsunamis can cross ocean basins to devastate areas far from the original earthquake.

Terminology and mechanism

Diagram of a subduction zone. The megathrust fault lies on the top of the subducting slab where it is in contact with the overriding plate. Subduction-en.svg
Diagram of a subduction zone. The megathrust fault lies on the top of the subducting slab where it is in contact with the overriding plate.

The term megathrust refers to an extremely large thrust fault, typically formed at the plate interface along a subduction zone, such as the Sunda megathrust. [4] [5] However, the term is also occasionally applied to large thrust faults in continental collision zones, such as the Himalayan megathrust. [6] A megathrust fault can be 1,000 kilometers (600 mi) long. [7]

Cross-sectional illustration of normal and reverse faults Nor rev.png
Cross-sectional illustration of normal and reverse faults

A thrust fault is a type of reverse fault, in which the rock above the fault is displaced upwards relative to the rock below the fault. This distinguishes reverse faults from normal faults, where the rock above the fault is displaced downwards, or strike-slip faults, where the rock on one side of the fault is displaced horizontally with respect to the other side. Thrust faults are distinguished from other reverse faults because they dip at a relatively shallow angle, typically less than 45°, [8] and show large displacements. [9] [10] In effect, the rocks above the fault have been thrust over the rocks below the fault. Thrust faults are characteristic of areas where the Earth's crust is being compressed by tectonic forces. [11]

Megathrust faults occur where two tectonic plates collide. When one of the plates is composed of oceanic lithosphere, it dives beneath the other plate (called the overriding plate) and sinks into the Earth's mantle as a slab . The contact between the colliding plates is the megathrust fault, where the rock of the overriding plate is displaced upwards relative to the rock of the descending slab. [5] Friction along the megathrust fault can lock the plates together, and the subduction forces then build up strain in the two plates. A megathrust earthquake takes place when the fault ruptures, allowing the plates to abruptly move past each other to release the accumulated strain energy. [7]

Occurrence and characteristics

Megathrust earthquakes are almost exclusive to tectonic subduction zones and are often associated with the Pacific and Indian Oceans. [5] These subduction zones are also largely responsible for the volcanic activity associated with the Pacific Ring of Fire. [12]

Since these earthquakes deform the ocean floor, they often generate strong tsunami waves. [13] Subduction zone earthquakes are also known to produce intense shaking and ground movements that can last for up to 3-5 minutes. [14]

In the Indian Ocean region, the Sunda megathrust is located where the Indo-Australian Plate subucts under the Eurasian Plate along a 5,500 kilometres (3,400 mi) fault off the coasts of Myanmar, Sumatra, Java and Bali, terminating off the northwestern coast of Australia. This subduction zone was responsible for the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. [15]

In Japan, the Nankai megathrust under the Nankai Trough is responsible for Nankai megathrust earthquakes and associated tsunamis. [16] The largest megathrust event within the last 20 years was the magnitude 9.1 Tōhoku earthquake along the Japan Trench megathrust. [17]

In North America, the Juan de Fuca Plate subducts under the North American Plate, creating the Cascadia subduction zone from mid Vancouver Island, British Columbia down to Northern California. This subduction zone was responsible for the 1700 Cascadia earthquake. [18] The Aleutian Trench, of the southern coast of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, where the North American Plate overrides the Pacific Plate, has generated many major earthquakes throughout history, several of which generated Pacific-wide tsunamis, [19] including the 1964 Alaska earthquake; at magnitude 9.2, it remains the largest recorded earthquake in North America, and the second-largest earthquake instrumentally recorded in the world. [20]

In the Himalayan region, where the Indian tectonic plate subducts under the Eurasian Plate, the largest recorded earthquake was the 1950 Assam–Tibet earthquake, at magnitude 8.7. It is estimated that earthquakes with magnitude 9.0 or larger are expected to occur at an interval of every 800 years, with the highest boundary being a magnitude 10, though this is not considered physically possible. Therefore, the largest possible earthquake in the region is a magnitude 9.7, assuming a single rupture of the whole Himalayan arc and assuming standard scaling law, which implies an average slip of 50 m. [21]

A megathrust earthquake could occur in the Lesser Antilles subduction zone, with a maximum magnitude of 9.3, or potentially even 10.3 through recent evaluations, a value not considered impossible. [22]

The largest recorded megathrust earthquake was the 1960 Valdivia earthquake, estimated magnitude 9.5, centered off the coast of Chile along the Peru-Chile Trench, where the Nazca Plate subducts under the South American Plate. [23] This megathrust region has regularly generated extremely large earthquakes.

Geologists estimate that the largest possible earthquakes could have magnitudes of 10 to 11, most likely caused by a combined rupture of the Japan Trench and Kuril-Kamchatka Trench, or individually the Aleutian Trench or Peru–Chile Trench. [24] [25] [26] Another possible area could be the Lesser Antilles subduction zone. [22]

A study reported in 2016 found that the largest megathrust quakes are associated with downgoing slabs with the shallowest dip, so-called flat slab subduction. [27]

Compared with other earthquakes of similar magnitude, megathrust earthquakes have a longer duration and slower rupture velocities. The largest megathrust earthquakes occur in subduction zones with thick sediments, which may allow a fault rupture to propagate for great distances unimpeded. [5]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Subduction</span> A geological process at convergent tectonic plate boundaries where one plate moves under the other

Subduction is a geological process in which the oceanic lithosphere and some continental lithosphere is recycled into the Earth's mantle at convergent boundaries. Where the oceanic lithosphere of a tectonic plate converges with the less dense lithosphere of a second plate, the heavier plate dives beneath the second plate and sinks into the mantle. A region where this process occurs is known as a subduction zone, and its surface expression is known as an arc-trench complex. The process of subduction has created most of the Earth's continental crust. Rates of subduction are typically measured in centimeters per year, with rates of convergence as high as 11 cm/year.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Convergent boundary</span> Region of active deformation between colliding tectonic plates

A convergent boundary is an area on Earth where two or more lithospheric plates collide. One plate eventually slides beneath the other, a process known as subduction. The subduction zone can be defined by a plane where many earthquakes occur, called the Wadati–Benioff zone. These collisions happen on scales of millions to tens of millions of years and can lead to volcanism, earthquakes, orogenesis, destruction of lithosphere, and deformation. Convergent boundaries occur between oceanic-oceanic lithosphere, oceanic-continental lithosphere, and continental-continental lithosphere. The geologic features related to convergent boundaries vary depending on crust types.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Japan Trench</span> Oceanic trench part of the Pacific Ring of Fire off northeast Japan

The Japan Trench is an oceanic trench part of the Pacific Ring of Fire off northeast Japan. It extends from the Kuril Islands to the northern end of the Izu Islands, and is 8,046 metres (26,398 ft) at its deepest. It links the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench to the north and the Izu–Ogasawara Trench to its south with a length of 800 kilometres (497 mi). This trench is created as the oceanic Pacific plate subducts beneath the continental Okhotsk Plate. The subduction process causes bending of the down going plate, creating a deep trench. Continuing movement on the subduction zone associated with the Japan Trench is one of the main causes of tsunamis and earthquakes in northern Japan, including the megathrust Tōhoku earthquake and resulting tsunami that occurred on 11 March 2011. The rate of subduction associated with the Japan Trench has been recorded at about 7.9–9.2 centimetres (3.1–3.6 in)/yr.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cascadia subduction zone</span> Convergent plate boundary that stretches from northern Vancouver Island to Northern California

The Cascadia subduction zone is a 960 km (600 mi) fault at a convergent plate boundary, about 110–160 km (70–100 mi) off the Pacific coast, that stretches from northern Vancouver Island in Canada to Northern California in the United States. It is capable of producing 9.0+ magnitude earthquakes and tsunamis that could reach 30 m (98 ft). The Oregon Department of Emergency Management estimates shaking would last 5–7 minutes along the coast, with strength and intensity decreasing further from the epicenter. It is a very long, sloping subduction zone where the Explorer, Juan de Fuca, and Gorda plates move to the east and slide below the much larger mostly continental North American Plate. The zone varies in width and lies offshore beginning near Cape Mendocino, Northern California, passing through Oregon and Washington, and terminating at about Vancouver Island in British Columbia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1946 Aleutian Islands earthquake</span> Earthquake near the Aleutian Islands, Alaska

The 1946 Aleutian Islands earthquake occurred near the Aleutian Islands, Alaska on April 1, 1946. The shock measured 8.6, Mt 9.3 or 7.4. It had a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI (Strong). It resulted in 165–173 casualties and over US $26 million in damage. The seafloor along the fault was elevated, triggering a Pacific-wide tsunami with multiple destructive waves at heights ranging from 45–138 ft (14–42 m). The tsunami obliterated the Scotch Cap Lighthouse on Unimak Island, Alaska among others, and killed all five lighthouse keepers. Despite the destruction to the Aleutian Island Unimak, the tsunami had almost an imperceptible effect on the Alaskan mainland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aleutian Trench</span> An oceanic trench along the southern coastline of Alaska and the Aleutian islands

The Aleutian Trench is an oceanic trench along a convergent plate boundary which runs along the southern coastline of Alaska and the Aleutian islands. The trench extends for 3,400 kilometres (2,100 mi) from a triple junction in the west with the Ulakhan Fault and the northern end of the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench, to a junction with the northern end of the Queen Charlotte Fault system in the east. It is classified as a "marginal trench" in the east as it runs along the margin of the continent. The subduction along the trench gives rise to the Aleutian Arc, a volcanic island arc, where it runs through the open sea west of the Alaska Peninsula. As a convergent plate boundary, the trench forms part of the boundary between two tectonic plates. Here, the Pacific Plate is being subducted under the North American Plate at a dip angle of nearly 45°. The rate of closure is 7.5 centimetres (3 in) per year.

The 1957 Andreanof Islands earthquake occurred at 04:22 local time on March 9 with a moment magnitude estimated between 8.6 and 9.1 and a maximum Modified Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe). It occurred south of the Andreanof Islands group, which is part of the Aleutian Islands arc. The event occurred along the Aleutian Trench, the convergent plate boundary that separates the Pacific Plate and the North American plates near Alaska. A basin-wide tsunami followed, with effects felt in Alaska and Hawaii, and strong waves recorded across the Pacific rim. Total losses were around $5 million.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2006 Pangandaran earthquake and tsunami</span> Destructive tsunami earthquake south of Java Island

An earthquake occurred on July 17, 2006 at 15:19:27 local time along a subduction zone off the coast of west and central Java, a large and densely populated island in the Indonesian archipelago. The shock had a moment magnitude of 7.7 and a maximum perceived intensity of IV (Light) in Jakarta, the capital and largest city of Indonesia. There were no direct effects of the earthquake's shaking due to its low intensity, and the large loss of life from the event was due to the resulting tsunami, which inundated a 300 km (190 mi) portion of the Java coast that had been unaffected by the earlier 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami that was off the coast of Sumatra. The July 2006 earthquake was also centered in the Indian Ocean, 180 kilometers (110 mi) from the coast of Java, and had a duration of more than three minutes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aleutian Arc</span> Volcanic arc in Alaska, United States

The Aleutian Arc is a large volcanic arc of islands extending from the Southwest tip of the U.S. state of Alaska to the Kamchatka Peninsula of the Russian Federation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tsunami earthquake</span> Type of earthquake which triggers a tsunami of far-larger magnitude

In seismology, a tsunami earthquake is an earthquake which triggers a tsunami of significantly greater magnitude, as measured by shorter-period seismic waves. The term was introduced by Japanese seismologist Hiroo Kanamori in 1972. Such events are a result of relatively slow rupture velocities. They are particularly dangerous as a large tsunami may arrive at a coastline with little or no warning.

On January 1, 1996, at 4:05 p.m. Central Indonesia Time, an earthquake with an epicenter in the Makassar Strait struck north of Minahasa on the island of Sulawesi, Indonesia. The earthquake measured 7.9 on the moment magnitude scale and was centered off Tolitoli Regency in Central Sulawesi, or 25 km from the Tonggolobibi village. A tsunami of 2–4 m (6.6–13.1 ft) was triggered by this earthquake as a result. At least 350 buildings were badly damaged, nine people died and 63 people were injured.

The Nemuro-Oki earthquake in scientific literature, occurred on June 17 at 12:55 local time. It struck with an epicenter just off the Nemuro Peninsula in northern Hokkaidō, Japan. It measured 7.8–7.9 on the moment magnitude scale (Mw ), 8.1 on the tsunami magnitude scale (Mt ) and 7.4 on the Japan Meteorological Agency magnitude scale (MJMA ).

The 1852 Banda Sea earthquake struck on 26 November at 07:40 local time, affecting coastal communities on the Banda Islands. It caused violent shaking lasting five minutes, and was assigned XI on the Modified Mercalli intensity scale in the Maluku Islands. A tsunami measuring up to 8 m (26 ft) slammed into the islands of Banda Neira, Saparua, Haruku and Ceram. The tsunami caused major damage, washing away many villages, ships and residents. At least 60 people were killed in the earthquake and tsunami. The earthquake had an estimated moment magnitude of 7.5 or 8.4–8.8, according to various academic studies.

The 1604 Arica earthquake is an earthquake that occurred at 1:30 pm on November 24, 1604, offshore Arica, Chile. The estimated magnitude range is 8.0–8.5 Ms and possibly up to 9.0 Mw. It had a destructive tsunami that destroyed Arica and caused major damage at Arequipa. 1,200 km of coastline were affected by the tsunami. The recorded effects of this earthquake are very similar to those for the 1868 Arica event, suggesting a similar magnitude and rupture area of the megathrust between the subducting Nazca Plate and the overriding South American Plate. Tsunami deposits have been identified on the Chatham Islands that are likely to have been caused by a trans-Pacific tsunami caused by the 1604 earthquake.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake</span> 16th-century seismic event in the North Pacific Ocean

The 1585 Aleutian Islands earthquake is the presumed source of a tsunami along the Sanriku coast of Japan on 11 June 1585, known only from vague historical accounts and oral traditions. The event was initially misdated to 1586, which led to it being associated with the deadly earthquakes in Peru and Japan of that year. A megathrust earthquake on the Aleutian subduction zone in the North Pacific Ocean was hypothesized as the tsunami's source. Paleotsunami evidence from shoreline deposits and coral rocks in Hawaii suggest that the 1585 event was a large megathrust earthquake with a moment magnitude (Mw ) as large as 9.25.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2021 Chignik earthquake</span> 7th largest earthquake in the US

An earthquake occurred off the coast of the Alaska Peninsula on July 28, 2021, at 10:15 p.m. local time. The large megathrust earthquake had a moment magnitude of 8.2 according to the United States Geological Survey (USGS). A tsunami warning was issued by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) but later cancelled. The mainshock was followed by a number of aftershocks, including three that were of magnitude 5.9, 6.1 and 6.9 respectively.

The 2021 Loyalty Islands earthquake was a 7.7 magnitude earthquake that struck offshore between Vanuatu and New Caledonia on February 11, 2021 at 00:19 local time. It is the 4th largest earthquake of 2021.

The 1979 Petatlán earthquake, also known as the IBERO earthquake occurred on March 14 at 05:07 local time in the Mexican state of Guerrero. The earthquake had a surface wave magnitude of Ms  7.6 or moment magnitude of Mw  7.4 and maximum Modified Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe). The epicenter, onshore, was located 12 km south southeast of Vallecitos de Zaragoza.

The 1843 Nias earthquake off the northern coast of Sumatra, Indonesia caused severe damage when it triggered a tsunami along the coastline. The earthquake with a moment magnitude (Mw ) of 7.8 lasted nine minutes, collapsing many homes in Sumatra and Nias. It was assigned a maximum modified Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme).

The 1979 Saint Elias earthquake occurred near noon local time on 28 February. It measured Mw 7.4–7.6. Though the maximum recorded Modified Mercalli intensity was VII, damage was minimal and there were no casualties due to the remoteness of the faulting. The epicenter lies near the Alaskan border between the United States and Canada.

References

  1. ↑ Meier, M.-A.; Ampuero, J. P.; Heaton, T. H. (22 September 2017). "The hidden simplicity of subduction megathrust earthquakes". Science. 357 (6357): 1277–1281. Bibcode:2017Sci...357.1277M. doi:10.1126/science.aan5643. PMID   28935803. S2CID   206660652.
  2. ↑ "Questions and Answers on Megathrust Earthquakes". Natural Resources Canada. Government of Canada. 19 October 2018. Retrieved 23 September 2020.
  3. ↑ Johnston, Arch C.; Halchuk, Stephen (June–July 1993), "The seismicity data base for the Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Program", Annali di Geofisica, 36 (3–4): 133–151, pp. 140, 142 et seq.
  4. ↑ Park, J.; Butler, R.; Anderson, K.; et al. (2005). "Performance Review of the Global Seismographic Network for the Sumatra-Andaman Megathrust Earthquake". Seismological Research Letters. 76 (3): 331–343. doi:10.1785/gssrl.76.3.331. ISSN   0895-0695.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Bilek, Susan L.; Lay, Thorne (1 August 2018). "Subduction zone megathrust earthquakes". Geosphere. 14 (4): 1468–1500. Bibcode:2018Geosp..14.1468B. doi: 10.1130/GES01608.1 . S2CID   133629102.
  6. ↑ Elliott, J.R.; Jolivet, R.; González, P. J.; Avouac, J.-P.; Hollingsworth, J.; Searle, M. P.; Stevens, V.L. (February 2016). "Himalayan megathrust geometry and relation to topography revealed by the Gorkha earthquake" (PDF). Nature Geoscience. 9 (2): 174–180. Bibcode:2016NatGe...9..174E. doi:10.1038/ngeo2623.
  7. 1 2 "Cascadia Subduction Zone". Pacific Northwest Seismic Network. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
  8. ↑ "Earthquake Glossary – dip slip". Earthquake Hazards Program. U.S. Geological Survey.
  9. ↑ Fossen, Haakon (2016). Structural geology (Second ed.). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 485, 488, 491. ISBN   9781107057647.
  10. ↑ "Tsunami Terminology". The National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program History, 1995–2005. Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory. Archived from the original on 2011-02-25.
  11. ↑ Fossen 2016, p. 356.
  12. ↑ "What is the Ring of Fire?". Ocean exploration. National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
  13. ↑ Maksymowicz, A.; Chadwell, C. D.; Ruiz, J.; Tréhu, A. M.; Contreras-Reyes, E.; Weinrebe, W.; Díaz-Naveas, J.; Gibson, J. C.; Lonsdale, P.; Tryon, M. D. (April 2017). "Coseismic seafloor deformation in the trench region during the Mw8.8 Maule megathrust earthquake". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 45918. Bibcode:2017NatSR...745918M. doi:10.1038/srep45918. PMC   5381107 . PMID   28378757.
  14. ↑ Megawati, K.; Pan, T.-C. (1 April 2009). "Regional Seismic Hazard Posed by the Mentawai Segment of the Sumatran Megathrust". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 99 (2A): 566–584. Bibcode:2009BuSSA..99..566M. doi:10.1785/0120080109.
  15. ↑ Sieh, Kerry (March 2007). "The Sunda megathrust: past, present and future". Journal of Earthquake and Tsunami. 01 (1): 1–19. doi:10.1142/S179343110700002X.
  16. ↑ Hirahara, K.; Kato N.; Miyatake T.; Hori T.; Hyodo M.; Inn J.; Mitsui N.; Sasaki T.; Miyamura T.; Nakama Y.; Kanai T. (2004). "Simulation of Earthquake Generation Process in a Complex System of Faults" (PDF). Annual Report of the Earth Simulator Center April 2004 - March 2005. pp. 121–126. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2009-11-14.
  17. ↑ "M 9.1 - 2011 Great Tohoku Earthquake, Japan". Earthquake Hazards Program. United States Geological Survey. 7 November 2016. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
  18. ↑ "A Major Earthquake in the Pacific Northwest Looks Even Likelier". The Atlantic. August 16, 2016.
  19. ↑ Witter, Rob; Briggs, Rich; Engelhart, Simon E.; Gelfenbaum, Guy; Koehler, Rich D.; Nelson, Alan; Selle, SeanPaul La; Corbett, Reide; Wallace, Kristi (1 May 2019). "Evidence for frequent, large tsunamis spanning locked and creeping parts of the Aleutian megathrust". GSA Bulletin. 131 (5–6): 707–729. Bibcode:2019GSAB..131..707W. doi:10.1130/B32031.1. S2CID   134362013.
  20. ↑ Ali, Syed Tabrez; Freed, Andrew M. (November 2010). "Contemporary deformation and stressing rates in Southern Alaska: Deformation and stressing rates in S. Alaska". Geophysical Journal International. 183 (2): 557–571. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2010.04784.x .
  21. ↑ Stevens, V. L.; Avouac, J.-P. (2016-02-16). "Millenary M w > 9.0 earthquakes required by geodetic strain in the Himalaya". Geophysical Research Letters. 43 (3): 1118–1123. doi:10.1002/2015GL067336. ISSN   0094-8276.
  22. 1 2 Roger, J.; Frère, A.; Hébert, H. (2014-07-25). "Impact of a tsunami generated at the Lesser Antilles subduction zone on the Northern Atlantic Ocean coastlines". Advances in Geosciences. 38: 43–53. doi: 10.5194/adgeo-38-43-2014 . ISSN   1680-7340.
  23. ↑ Ojeda, Javier; Ruiz, Sergio; del Campo, Francisco; Carvajal, Matías (1 May 2020). "The 21 May 1960 Mw 8.1 Concepción Earthquake: A Deep Megathrust Foreshock That Started the 1960 Central-South Chilean Seismic Sequence". Seismological Research Letters. 91 (3): 1617–1627. doi:10.1785/0220190143. S2CID   216347638.
  24. ↑ Kyodo (2012-12-15). "Magnitude 10 temblor could happen: study". The Japan Times. Retrieved 2023-10-20.
  25. ↑ Matsuzawa, Toru (2014-06-01). "The Largest Earthquakes We Should Prepare for". Journal of Disaster Research. 9 (3): 248–251. doi: 10.20965/jdr.2014.p0248 .
  26. ↑ Hirose, Fuyuki; Maeda, Kenji; Yoshida, Yasuhiro (2019-12-01). "Maximum magnitude of subduction earthquakes along the Japan-Kuril-Kamchatka trench estimated from seismic moment conservation". Geophysical Journal International. 219 (3): 1590–1612. Bibcode:2019GeoJI.219.1590H. doi:10.1093/gji/ggz381. ISSN   0956-540X.
  27. ↑ Bletery, Quentin; Thomas, Amanda M.; Rempel, Alan W.; Karlstrom, Leif; Sladen, Anthony; De Barros, Louis (2016-11-24). "Fault curvature may control where big quakes occur, Eurekalert 24-NOV-2016". Science. 354 (6315): 1027–1031. Bibcode:2016Sci...354.1027B. doi: 10.1126/science.aag0482 . PMID   27885027 . Retrieved 2018-06-05.

Further reading

  1. ↑ Gutscher, M.-A.; Baptista, M.A.; Miranda, J.M. (2006). "The Gibraltar Arc seismogenic zone (part 2): Constraints on a shallow east dipping fault plane source for the 1755 Lisbon earthquake provided by tsunami modeling and seismic intensity". Tectonophysics. 426 (1–2): 153–166. Bibcode:2006Tectp.426..153G. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2006.02.025. ISSN   0040-1951.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.