Meromictic lake

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McGinnis Lake is a meromictic lake within the Petroglyphs Provincial Park. McGinnis Lake panorama1.jpg
McGinnis Lake is a meromictic lake within the Petroglyphs Provincial Park.
Lac Pavin in France is a meromictic crater lake. Lac Pavin Vue gene.JPG
Lac Pavin in France is a meromictic crater lake.

A meromictic lake is a lake which has layers of water that do not intermix. [1] In ordinary, holomictic lakes, at least once each year, there is a physical mixing of the surface and the deep waters. [2]

Contents

The term meromictic was coined by the Austrian Ingo Findenegg in 1935, apparently based on the older word holomictic. The concepts and terminology used in describing meromictic lakes were essentially complete following some additions by G. Evelyn Hutchinson in 1937. [3] [4] [5]

Characteristics

Typical mixing pattern for a dimictic lake. This does not occur in meromictic lakes LSE Stratification.png
Typical mixing pattern for a dimictic lake. This does not occur in meromictic lakes

Most lakes are holomictic: at least once per year, the surface and the deep waters mix. In monomictic lakes, the mixing occurs once per year; in dimictic lakes, it occurs twice a year (typically spring and autumn), and in polymictic lakes, the mixing occurs several times a year. In meromictic lakes, the layers of water can remain unmixed for years, decades, or centuries.

Meromictic lakes can usually be divided into three sections or layers. The bottom layer is the monimolimnion; the waters in this portion of the lake circulate little, and are generally hypoxic and saltier than the rest of the lake. The top layer is the mixolimnion, and essentially behaves like a holomictic lake. The area in between is the chemocline, or chemolimnion. [6]

The lack of mixing between layers creates radically different environments for life: the stratification, or stable layering, of lake waters means that the bottom layer receives little oxygen from the atmosphere, hence becomes depleted of oxygen. While the surface layer may have 10 mg/L or more dissolved oxygen in summer, the depths of a meromictic lake can have less than 1 mg/L. [7] Very few organisms can live in such an oxygen-poor environment. One exception is purple sulfur bacteria. These bacteria, commonly found at the top of the monimolimnion in such lakes, use sulfur compounds such as sulfides in photosynthesis. These compounds are produced by decomposition of organic sediments in oxygen-poor environments. The monimolimnion is often rich in phosphorus and nitrogen. These factors combine to create an ideal environment for bacterial growth. The mixolimnion can have similar qualities. However, the types of bacteria that can grow at the surface are determined by the amount of light received at the surface. [8]

A meromictic lake may form because the basin is unusually deep and steep-sided compared to the lake's surface area, or because the lower layer of the lake is highly saline and denser than the upper layers of water. [9] However, human influence can lead to cultural meromixis occurring. [10] [11] [12] The increased use of road salt as a deicing strategy, particularly in northern latitude regions, can disturb the natural mixing cycles in lakes by inhibiting mixing. [13] [14] As salt is flushed into aquatic systems at high concentrations in late winter/early spring, it accumulates in the deepest layer of lakes leading to incomplete mixing.  

Stratification in meromictic lakes can be either endogenic or ectogenic. Endogenic means the patterns seen in the lake are caused by internal events, such as organic matter accumulating in the sediments and decaying, whereas ectogenic means the patterns seen are caused by external causes, like an intrusion of saltwater settling in the hypolimnion, preventing it from mixing. [15]

The layers of sediment at the bottom of a meromictic lake remain relatively undisturbed because there is little physical mixing and few living organisms to agitate them. There is also little chemical decomposition. For this reason, cores of the sediment at the bottom of meromictic lakes are important in tracing past changes in climate at the lake, by examining trapped pollen grains and the types of sediments [see Proxy (climate)].

When the layers do mix for whatever reason, the consequences can be devastating for organisms that normally live in the mixolimnion. This layer is usually much smaller in volume than the monimolimnion. When the layers mix, the oxygen concentration at the surface will decrease dramatically. This can result in the death of many organisms, such as fish, that require oxygen.

Occasionally, carbon dioxide, methane, or other dissolved gases can build up relatively undisturbed in the lower layers of a meromictic lake. When the stratification is disturbed, as could happen from an earthquake, a limnic eruption may result. In 1986, a notable event of this type took place at Lake Nyos in Cameroon, causing nearly 1,800 deaths. [16] [17] [18] In the following decades after this disaster, active research and management has been done to mitigate gas buildup in the future through the Nyos Organ Pipes Program (NOPP). [19] The NOPP program placed large organ pipes into Lake Nyos, to reach the monimolimnion where harmful dissolved gases built up, that allow for gas release to the atmosphere, effectively degassing the monimolimnion. [19] Since 2019, Lake Nyos has successfully been degassed to a nonhazardous concentration of dissolved gas. [19] Paralleling Lake Nyos, Lake Kivu is another lake that poses a potentially fatal threat to the community. Some management strategies have suggested taking a different approach, moving gases from the monimolimnion to the mixolimnion, rather than degassing to the atmosphere through organ pipes. [20]

While it is mainly lakes that are meromictic, the world's largest meromictic basin is the Black Sea. The deep waters below 50 m (160 ft) do not mix with the upper layers that receive oxygen from the atmosphere. As a result, over 90% of the deeper Black Sea volume is anoxic water. The Caspian Sea is anoxic below 100 m (330 ft). The Baltic Sea is persistently stratified, with dense, highly saline water comprising the bottom layer, and large areas of hypoxic sediments (see Baltic Sea hypoxia).

Strandvatnet in Nordland down to the left; only a small isthmus separates the lake from Ofotfjord. P6270090 1.jpg
Strandvatnet in Nordland down to the left; only a small isthmus separates the lake from Ofotfjord.
Lac du Bourget is the largest and deepest lake in France Lac du Bourget 2.jpg
Lac du Bourget is the largest and deepest lake in France
Green Lake is a meromictic lake near Syracuse, New York. Greenlake.jpg
Green Lake is a meromictic lake near Syracuse, New York.
Sunfish Lake is a meromictic lake near Waterloo, Ontario. Sunfish Sunshine copy.jpg
Sunfish Lake is a meromictic lake near Waterloo, Ontario.
Big Soda Lake is a meromictic lake in a volcanic crater near Fallon, Nevada Kluft-photo-SodaLake-pano-2018-11.jpg
Big Soda Lake is a meromictic lake in a volcanic crater near Fallon, Nevada
Soapy foam on the shore of Soap Lake in Washington Soap Lake.jpg
Soapy foam on the shore of Soap Lake in Washington

List of meromictic lakes

Lake Pakasaivo, a meromictic lake in Muonio, Finland Pakasaivo 1.jpg
Lake Pakasaivo, a meromictic lake in Muonio, Finland

There are meromictic lakes all over the world. The distribution appears to be clustered, but this may be due to incomplete investigations. Depending on the exact definition of "meromictic", the ratio between meromictic and holomictic lakes worldwide is around 1:1000. [21]

Africa

Antarctica

Asia

Australia

Europe

North America

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Limnology</span> Science of inland aquatic ecosystems

Limnology is the study of inland aquatic ecosystems. The study of limnology includes aspects of the biological, chemical, physical, and geological characteristics of fresh and saline, natural and man-made bodies of water. This includes the study of lakes, reservoirs, ponds, rivers, springs, streams, wetlands, and groundwater. Water systems are often categorized as either running (lotic) or standing (lentic).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Green Lake (New York)</span> Lake in New York

Green Lake is the larger of the two lakes in Green Lakes State Park, which lies about 9 miles (14 km) east of downtown Syracuse in Onondaga County, New York. Round Lake is the smaller lake located west of Green Lake. Both lakes are meromictic, which means no seasonal mixing of surface and bottom waters occurs. Meromictic lakes are fairly rare; they have been extensively studied, in part because their sediments can preserve a historical record extending back thousands of years, and because of the euxinic conditions which can form in the deep water.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lake stratification</span> Separation of water in a lake into distinct layers

Lake stratification is the tendency of lakes to form separate and distinct thermal layers during warm weather. Typically stratified lakes show three distinct layers: the epilimnion, comprising the top warm layer; the thermocline, the middle layer, whose depth may change throughout the day; and the colder hypolimnion, extending to the floor of the lake.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Limnic eruption</span> Type of natural disaster

A limnic eruption, also known as a lake overturn, is a very rare type of natural disaster in which dissolved carbon dioxide suddenly erupts from deep lake waters, forming a gas cloud capable of asphyxiating wildlife, livestock, and humans. A limnic eruption may also cause tsunamis or seiches as the rising CO2 displaces water. Scientists believe earthquakes, volcanic activity, and other explosive events can serve as triggers for limnic eruptions. Lakes in which such activity occurs are referred to as limnically active lakes or exploding lakes. Some features of limnically active lakes include:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Colored dissolved organic matter</span> Optically measurable component of the dissolved organic matter in water

Colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM) is the optically measurable component of dissolved organic matter in water. Also known as chromophoric dissolved organic matter, yellow substance, and gelbstoff, CDOM occurs naturally in aquatic environments and is a complex mixture of many hundreds to thousands of individual, unique organic matter molecules, which are primarily leached from decaying detritus and organic matter. CDOM most strongly absorbs short wavelength light ranging from blue to ultraviolet, whereas pure water absorbs longer wavelength red light. Therefore, water with little or no CDOM, such as the open ocean, appears blue. Waters containing high amounts of CDOM can range from brown, as in many rivers, to yellow and yellow-brown in coastal waters. In general, CDOM concentrations are much higher in fresh waters and estuaries than in the open ocean, though concentrations are highly variable, as is the estimated contribution of CDOM to the total dissolved organic matter pool.

A dimictic lake is a body of freshwater whose difference in temperature between surface and bottom layers becomes negligible twice per year, allowing all strata of the lake's water to circulate vertically. All dimictic lakes are also considered holomictic, a category which includes all lakes which mix one or more times per year. During winter, dimictic lakes are covered by a layer of ice, creating a cold layer at the surface, a slightly warmer layer beneath the ice, and a still-warmer unfrozen bottom layer, while during summer, the same temperature-derived density differences separate the warm surface waters, from the colder bottom waters. In the spring and fall, these temperature differences briefly disappear, and the body of water overturns and circulates from top to bottom. Such lakes are common in mid-latitude regions with temperate climates.

Monomictic lakes are holomictic lakes that mix from top to bottom during one mixing period each year. Monomictic lakes may be subdivided into cold and warm types.

Polymictic lakes are holomictic lakes that are too shallow to develop thermal stratification; thus, their waters can mix from top to bottom throughout the ice-free period. Polymictic lakes can be divided into cold polymictic lakes, and warm polymictic lakes. While such lakes are well-mixed on average, during low-wind periods, weak and ephemeral stratification can often develop.

Holomictic lakes are lakes that have a uniform temperature and density from surface to bottom at a specific time during the year, which allows the lake waters to mix in the absence of stratification.

A chemocline is a type of cline, a layer of fluid with different properties, characterized by a strong, vertical chemistry gradient within a body of water. In bodies of water where chemoclines occur, the cline separates the upper and lower layers, resulting in different properties for those layers. The lower layer shows a change in the concentration of dissolved gases and solids compared to the upper layer.

The deep chlorophyll maximum (DCM), also called the subsurface chlorophyll maximum, is the region below the surface of water with the maximum concentration of chlorophyll. The DCM generally exists at the same depth as the nutricline, the region of the ocean where the greatest change in the nutrient concentration occurs with depth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lake</span> Large body of relatively still water

A lake is a naturally occurring, relatively large and fixed body of water on the Earth's surface. It is localized in a basin or interconnected basins surrounded by dry land. Lakes lie completely on land and are separate from the ocean, although they may be connected with the ocean by rivers, such as Lake Ontario. Most lakes are freshwater and account for almost all the world's surface freshwater, but some are salt lakes with salinities even higher than that of seawater. Lakes vary significantly in surface area and volume.

Solar Lake is a saline desert lake located on the edge of the Red Sea, about 18 km south of Eilat in the Sinai Peninsula, Taba, Egypt, close to its borders with Israel. A small lake of high salinity, it is the site of complex biochemical phenomena, linked to cycles of evaporation and of infiltration of waters.

Euxinia or euxinic conditions occur when water is both anoxic and sulfidic. This means that there is no oxygen (O2) and a raised level of free hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Euxinic bodies of water are frequently strongly stratified; have an oxic, highly productive, thin surface layer; and have anoxic, sulfidic bottom water. The word "euxinia" is derived from the Greek name for the Black Sea (Εὔξεινος Πόντος (Euxeinos Pontos)) which translates to "hospitable sea". Euxinic deep water is a key component of the Canfield ocean, a model of oceans during part of the Proterozoic eon (a part specifically known as the Boring Billion) proposed by Donald Canfield, an American geologist, in 1998. There is still debate within the scientific community on both the duration and frequency of euxinic conditions in the ancient oceans. Euxinia is relatively rare in modern bodies of water, but does still happen in places like the Black Sea and certain fjords.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lake metabolism</span> The balance between production and consumption of organic matter in lakes

Lake metabolism represents a lake's balance between carbon fixation and biological carbon oxidation. Whole-lake metabolism includes the carbon fixation and oxidation from all organism within the lake, from bacteria to fishes, and is typically estimated by measuring changes in dissolved oxygen or carbon dioxide throughout the day.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Benthic-pelagic coupling</span> Processes that connect the benthic and pelagic zones of a body of water

Benthic-pelagic coupling are processes that connect the benthic zone and the pelagic zone through the exchange of energy, mass, or nutrients. These processes play a prominent role in both freshwater and marine ecosystems and are influenced by a number of chemical, biological, and physical forces that are crucial to functions from nutrient cycling to energy transfer in food webs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marl lake</span> Alkaline lake rich in calcium carbonate

A marl lake is a type of alkaline lake whose bottom sediments include large deposits of marl, a mixture of clay and carbonate minerals. The term is particularly applied to lakes that have been dredged or mined for marl, often for manufacturing Portland cement.

Yvette Hardman Edmondson was the editor of Limnology and Oceanography the premier journal of the Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography and was an aquatic scientist known for her research on bacteria in aquatic systems.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lake Lacawac</span>

Lake Lacawac is located at the very middle of Lacawac's Sanctuary Field Station in Pennsylvania and has been deemed the "southernmost unpolluted glacial lake in North America." Lake Lacawac has proven to be invaluable to researchers and students to conduct field experiments in order to learn more about the limnology of the lake.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alpine lake</span> High-altitude lake in a mountainous zone

An alpine lake is a high-altitude lake in a mountainous area, usually near or above the tree line, with extended periods of ice cover. These lakes are commonly glacial lakes formed from glacial activity but can also be formed from geological processes such as volcanic activity or landslides. Many alpine lakes that are fed from glacial meltwater have the characteristic bright turquoise green color as a result of glacial flour, suspended minerals derived from a glacier scouring the bedrock. When active glaciers are not supplying water to the lake, such as a majority of Rocky Mountains alpine lakes in the United States, the lakes may still be bright blue due to the lack of algal growth resulting from cold temperatures, lack of nutrient run-off from surrounding land, and lack of sediment input. The coloration and mountain locations of alpine lakes attract lots of recreational activity.

References

  1. ↑ Wetzel, Robert G. (2001). Limnology: Lake and River Ecosystems (Third ed.). New York: Academic Press. ISBN   978-0-12-744760-5.
  2. ↑ Lewis, William M. Jr. (1983). "A revised classification of lakes based on mixing" (PDF). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 40 (10): 1779–1787. doi:10.1139/f83-207. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2009.
  3. ↑ Hakala, Anu (27 February 2004). "Meromixis as a part of lake evolution – observations and a revised classification of true meromictic lakes in Finland" (PDF). Boreal Environment Research. 9: 37–53. ISSN   1239-6095.
  4. ↑ Findenegg, Ingo (1935). "Limnologische Untersuchungen im Kärntner Seengebiete. Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis des Stoffhaushaltes in Alpenseen". Internationale Revue der Gesamte Hydrobiologie (in German). 32: 369–423. As cited by Hakala (2004).
  5. ↑ Hutchinson, G. Evelyn (1937). "A contribution to the limnology of arid regions". Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. 33: 47–132. As cited by Hakala (2004).
  6. ↑ Walker, K. F. (March 1974). "The Stability of Meromictic Lakes in Central Washington". Limnology and Oceanography. 19 (2): 209–222. Bibcode:1974LimOc..19..209W. doi:10.4319/lo.1974.19.2.0209. JSTOR   2834407.
  7. ↑ Lampert, Winfried & Sommer, Ulrich (1997). Limnoecology: The Ecology of Lakes and Streams . Translated by James F. Haney. Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-509592-0.
  8. ↑ Fry, Brian (January 1986). "Sources of Carbon and Sulfur Nutrition for Consumers in Three Meromictic Lakes of New York State". Limnology and Oceanography. 31 (1): 79–88. Bibcode:1986LimOc..31...79F. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.420.7035 . doi:10.4319/lo.1986.31.1.0079. JSTOR   2836641. PMID   11539668.
  9. ↑ Stewart, K. M.; Walker, K. F.; Likens, G. E. (1 January 2009), "Meromictic Lakes", in Likens, Gene E. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Inland Waters, Oxford: Academic Press, pp. 589–602, doi:10.1016/b978-012370626-3.00027-2, ISBN   978-0-12-370626-3 , retrieved 12 April 2024
  10. ↑ Sibert, Ryan J.; Koretsky, Carla M.; Wyman, Davina A. (2015). "Cultural meromixis: Effects of road salt on the chemical stratification of an urban kettle lake". Chemical Geology. 395: 126–137. Bibcode:2015ChGeo.395..126S. doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2014.12.010.
  11. ↑ Dupuis, Danielle; Sprague, Emily; Docherty, Kathryn M.; Koretsky, Carla M. (15 April 2019). "The influence of road salt on seasonal mixing, redox stratification and methane concentrations in urban kettle lakes". Science of the Total Environment. 661: 514–521. Bibcode:2019ScTEn.661..514D. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.191. ISSN   0048-9697. PMID   30682604.
  12. ↑ Kjensmo, Johannes (1997). "[No title found]". Hydrobiologia. 347 (1/3): 151–159. doi:10.1023/A:1003035705729.
  13. ↑ Ladwig, Robert; Rock, Linnea A.; Dugan, Hilary A. (2023). "Impact of salinization on lake stratification and spring mixing". Limnology and Oceanography Letters. 8 (1): 93–102. Bibcode:2023LimOL...8...93L. doi: 10.1002/lol2.10215 . ISSN   2378-2242.
  14. ↑ Smoll, John P.; Brown, S. R.; McNeely, R. N. (1983). "Cultural disturbances and trophic history of a small meromictic lake from central Canada". Hydrobiologia. 103 (1): 125–130. doi:10.1007/BF00028439. ISSN   0018-8158.
  15. ↑ Wetzel, R. G. (2001). Limnology: Lake and river ecosystems. San Diego: Academic Press.
  16. ↑ Krajick, Kevin (28 March 2003). "Africa's Davids and Goliaths". Science. 299 (5615): 2024–2026. doi:10.1126/science.299.5615.2024. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   12663915.
  17. ↑ Boehrer, Bertram; Saiki, Kazuto; Ohba, Takeshi; Tanyileke, Greg; Rouwet, Dmitri; Kusakabe, Minoru (28 July 2021). "Carbon Dioxide in Lake Nyos, Cameroon, Estimated Quantitatively From Sound Speed Measurements". Frontiers in Earth Science. 9. doi: 10.3389/feart.2021.645011 . ISSN   2296-6463.
  18. ↑ Tassi, Franco; Rouwet, Dmitri (12 February 2014). "An overview of the structure, hazards, and methods of investigation of Nyos-type lakes from the geochemical perspective". Journal of Limnology. 73 (1). doi:10.4081/jlimnol.2014.836. ISSN   1723-8633.
  19. 1 2 3 Halbwachs, Michel; Sabroux, Jean-Christophe; Kayser, Gaston (2020). "Final step of the 32-year Lake Nyos degassing adventure: Natural CO2 recharge is to be balanced by discharge through the degassing pipes". Journal of African Earth Sciences. 167: 103575. doi: 10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.103575 .
  20. ↑ Hirslund, F.; Morkel, P. (2020). "Managing the dangers in Lake Kivu – How and why". Journal of African Earth Sciences. 161: 103672. Bibcode:2020JAfES.16103672H. doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.103672.
  21. ↑ Hakala, Anu (2005). Paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatic studies on the sediments of Lake Vähä-Pitkusta and observations of meromixis (Doctoral dissertation). University of Helsinki. ISBN   952-10-2154-3.
  22. ↑ Gibson, John AE. "The meromictic lakes and stratified marine basins of the Vestfold Hills, East Antarctica." Antarctic Science 11.2 (1999): 175-192.
  23. ↑ Likens, Gene E., ed. (2010). Lake Ecosystem Ecology: A Global Perspective. Academic Press. p. 186. ISBN   978-0-12-382003-7. A derivative of the Encyclopedia of Inland Waters.
  24. ↑ "Lago di Cadagno". Centro Biologia Alpina (in Italian). 6 December 2014. Retrieved 23 February 2015.
  25. ↑ Jacquet, Stéphan; Briand, Jean-François; et al. (2003). "The proliferation of the toxic cyanobacterium Planktothrix rubescens following restoration of the largest natural French lake (Lac du Bourget)" (PDF). Harmful Algae. 4 (4): 651–672. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.541.2297 . doi:10.1016/j.hal.2003.12.006. S2CID   51989121. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2009. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
  26. ↑ Lewis, Ted; Lamoureux, Scott F.; Normandeau, Alexandre; Dugan, Hilary A. (2017). "Hyperpycnal flows control the persistence and flushing of hypoxic high conductivity bottom water in a High Arctic lake". Arctic Science. doi: 10.1139/as-2017-0022 . hdl: 1807/81139 .
  27. ↑ Council Meeting - 19 Jan 2016 - Municipality of Trent Lakes
  28. ↑ Ontario Parks: Petroglyphs
  29. ↑ Sanderson, B.; Perry, K. & Pedersen, T. (15 June 1986). "Vertical Diffusion in Meromictic Powell Lake, British Columbia". Journal of Geophysical Research. 91 (C-6): 7647–7655. Bibcode:1986JGR....91.7647S. doi:10.1029/JC091iC06p07647.
  30. ↑ Smol, John P.; Brown, S. R.; McNeely, R. N. (1983). "Cultural disturbances and trophic history of a small meromictic lake from central Canada". Paleolimnology. pp. 125–130. doi:10.1007/978-94-009-7290-2_20. ISBN   978-94-009-7292-6.
  31. ↑ Heart Lake Conservation Area: Master Plan, Heart Lake Conservation Area Master Plan Advisory Committee, Conservation Land Planning Group, TRCA
  32. ↑ Toney, Jaime L.; Rodbell, Donald T.; Miller, Norton G. (2003). "Sedimentologic and palynologic records of the last deglaciation and Holocene from Ballston Lake, New York" (PDF). Quaternary Research. 60 (2): 189–199. Bibcode:2003QuRes..60..189T. doi:10.1016/S0033-5894(03)00093-0. S2CID   129373891 . Retrieved 9 September 2018.
  33. ↑ Cloern, James E.; Cole, Brian E. & Oremland, Ronald S. (November 1983). "Autotrophic Processes in Meromictic Big Soda Lake, Nevada". Limnology and Oceanography. 28 (6): 1049–1061. Bibcode:1983LimOc..28.1049C. doi: 10.4319/lo.1983.28.6.1049 . JSTOR   2836268.
  34. ↑ Lambrecht, Nicholas; Wittkop, Chad; Katsev, Sergei; Fakhraee, Mojtaba; Swanner, Elizabeth (2018). "Geochemical Characterization of Two Ferruginous Meromictic Lakes in the Upper Midwest, USA". Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences. 123 (10): 3403–3422. Bibcode:2018JGRG..123.3403L. doi: 10.1029/2018JG004587 .
  35. ↑ Lambrecht, Nicholas; Wittkop, Chad; Katsev, Sergei; Fakhraee, Mojtaba; Swanner, Elizabeth D. (2018). "Geochemical Characterization of Two Ferruginous Meromictic Lakes in the Upper Midwest, USA". Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences. 123 (10): 3403–3422. Bibcode:2018JGRG..123.3403L. doi: 10.1029/2018JG004587 .
  36. ↑ "Lakes and Ponds". Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore, Michigan. National Park Service, US Dept of Interior. Retrieved 23 February 2016.
  37. ↑ Anderson, G.C. (July 1958). "Some Limnological Features of a Shallow Saline Meromictic Lake". Limnology and Oceanography. 3 (3): 259–270. Bibcode:1958LimOc...3..259A. doi: 10.4319/lo.1958.3.3.0259 .
  38. ↑ Parkin, T.B. & Brock, T.D. (September 1981). "The Role of Phototrophic Bacteria in the Sulfur Cycle of a Meromictic Lake". Limnology and Oceanography. 26 (5): 880–890. Bibcode:1981LimOc..26..880P. doi: 10.4319/lo.1981.26.5.0880 .
  39. ↑ Weimar, Walter C. & Lee, G. Fred (May 1973). "Some Considerations of the Chemical Limnology of Meromictic Lake Mary". Limnology and Oceanography. 18 (3): 414–425. Bibcode:1973LimOc..18..414W. doi: 10.4319/lo.1973.18.3.0414 . JSTOR   2834466.
  40. ↑ McCoy, G.A. (1977). "Limnological studies in southeastern Alaska and water quality measurements along the TAPS route during pipeline construction". Circular 751-B: USGS Survey in Alaska, Accomplishments During 1976. US Geological Survey: B7.
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