Myriapoda

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Myriapods
Temporal range: Wenlock–Present
Myriapod collage.png
Representatives of the four extant myriapod classes. Clockwise from top left: Chilopoda, Diplopoda, Symphyla, and Pauropoda.
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Clade: Mandibulata
Subphylum: Myriapoda
Latreille, 1802
Classes [1]

Myriapods (from Ancient Greek μυρίος (muríos) 'countless',and πούς (poús) 'foot') are the members of subphylum Myriapoda, containing arthropods such as millipedes and centipedes. The group contains about 13,000 species, all of them terrestrial. [2]

The fossil record of myriapods reaches back into the late Wenlock epoch of the late Silurian, [3] although molecular evidence suggests a diversification in the Cambrian Period, [4] and Cambrian fossils exist which resemble myriapods. [2] The oldest unequivocal myriapod fossil species is Pneumodesmus from the late Silurian around 428  million years ago, which is important as the earliest known evidence of an air-breathing animal. [3] [5] [6] Other early myriapod fossil species are Kampecaris obanensis and Archidesmus sp. from the late Silurian around 425  million years ago. [7] The phylogenetic classification of myriapods is still debated.

The scientific study of myriapods is myriapodology, and those who study myriapods are myriapodologists. [8]

Anatomy

The head of Scutigera coleoptrata, showing antennae, compound eyes and mouthparts HouseCentipedeCloseup.jpg
The head of Scutigera coleoptrata , showing antennae, compound eyes and mouthparts

Myriapods have a single pair of antennae and, in most cases, simple eyes. Exceptions are the two classes symphylans and pauropods, and the millipede order Polydesmida and the centipede order Geophilomorpha, which are all eyeless. [9] The house centipedes (Scutigera) on the other hand, have large and well-developed compound eyes. [10] The mouthparts lie on the underside of the head, with an "epistome" and labrum forming the upper lip, and a pair of maxillae forming the lower lip. A pair of mandibles lie inside the mouth. Myriapods breathe through spiracles that connect to a tracheal system similar to that of insects. There is a long tubular heart that extends through much of the body, but usually few, if any, blood vessels. [11]

Malpighian tubules excrete nitrogenous waste into the digestive system, which typically consists of a simple tube. Although the ventral nerve cord has a ganglion in each segment, the brain is relatively poorly developed. [11]

During mating, male myriapods produce a packet of sperm, or spermatophore, which they must transfer to the female externally; this process is often complex and highly developed. The female lays eggs which hatch as much-shortened versions of the adults, with only a few segments and as few as three pairs of legs. With the exception of the two centipede orders Scolopendromorpha and Geophilomorpha, which have epimorphic development (all body segments are formed segments embryonically), the young add additional segments and limbs as they repeatedly moult to reach the adult form. [11]

The process of adding new segments during postembryonic growth is known as anamorphosis, of which there are three types: euanamorphosis, emianamorphosis, and teloanamorphosis. In euanamorphosis, every moult is followed by addition of new segments, even after reaching sexual maturity; in emianamorphosis, new segments are added until a certain stage, and further moults happen without addition of segments; and in teloanamorphosis, where the addition of new segments stops after the adult form is reached, after no further moults occur. [12]

Ecology

Part of a series on
Myriapods
Milpies (Cylindroiulus caeruleocinctus), Hartelholz, Munich, Alemania, 2020-06-28, DD 295-320 FS.jpg
Classes
Centipedes • Millipedes • Symphylans • Pauropods
Anatomy
Organ of Tömösváry • Ozopore • Ultimate legs
Cyphopods • Forcipules • Millipede gonopods
Notable species
Eumillipes persephone • Eopauropus balticus • Scolopendra gigantea • Scutigerella immaculata
Interactions with humans
Centipede bite

Myriapods are most abundant in moist forests, where they fulfill an important role in breaking down decaying plant material, [2] although a few live in grasslands, semi-arid habitats or even deserts. [13] A very small percentage of species are littoral (found along the sea shore). [14] [15] The majority are detritivorous, with the exception of centipedes, which are chiefly nocturnal predators.

A few species of centipedes and millipedes are able to produce light and are therefore bioluminescent. [16] Pauropodans and symphylans are small, sometimes microscopic animals that resemble centipedes superficially and live in soils. Millipedes differ from the other groups in having their body segments fused into pairs, giving the appearance that each segment bears two pairs of legs, while the other three groups have a single pair of legs on each body segment.

Although not generally considered dangerous to humans, many millipedes produce noxious secretions (often containing benzoquinones) which in rare cases can cause temporary blistering and discolouration of the skin. [17] Large centipedes, however, can bite humans, and although the bite may cause intense pain and discomfort, fatalities are extremely rare. [18]

Classification

Scolopendra cingulata, a centipede Scolopendra fg01.JPG
Scolopendra cingulata , a centipede

There has been much debate as to which arthropod group is most closely related to the Myriapoda. [19] Under the Mandibulata hypothesis, Myriapoda is the sister taxon to Pancrustacea, a group comprising the Crustacea and Hexapoda (insects and their close relatives). Under the Atelocerata hypothesis, Hexapoda is the closest, whereas under the Paradoxopoda hypothesis, Chelicerata is the closest. This last hypothesis, although supported by few, if any, morphological characters, is supported by a number of molecular studies. [20]

A 2020 study found numerous characters of the eye and preoral region suggesting that the closest relatives to crown myriapods are the extinct Euthycarcinoids. [21] There are four classes of extant myriapods, Chilopoda (centipedes), Diplopoda, Pauropoda and Symphyla, containing a total of around 12,000 species. [22] While each of these groups of myriapods is believed to be monophyletic, relationships among them are less certain. [23]

Centipedes

Tachypodoiulus niger, a millipede Tachypodoiulus niger 1.jpg
Tachypodoiulus niger , a millipede
A species of Scutigerella, a genus of Symphylan. Scutigerella 42508806.jpg
A species of Scutigerella, a genus of Symphylan.

Centipedes make up the class Chilopoda. They are fast, predatory and venomous, hunting mostly at night. There are around 3,300 species, [22] ranging from the diminutive Nannarrup hoffmani (less than 12 mm or 1⁄2 in in length) [24] to the giant Scolopendra gigantea , which may exceed 30 centimetres (12 in).

Millipedes

Millipedes form the class Diplopoda. Most millipedes are slower than centipedes, and feed on leaf litter and detritus. Except for the first segment called collum, which don't have any appendages, and the next three segments with a single pair of legs each, they are distinguished by the fusion of each pair of body segments into a single unit, giving the appearance of having two pairs of legs per segment. It is also common for the sternites, pleurites and tergites to fuse into rigid armour rings. [25] The males produce aflagellate sperm cells, unlike the rest of the myriapods which produce flagellated sperm. [26] Around 12,000 species have been described, which may represent less than a tenth of the true global millipede diversity. [22] Although the name "millipede" is a compound word formed from the Latin roots millia ("thousand") and pes (gen. pedis) ("foot"), millipedes typically have between 36 and 400 legs. In 2021, however, was described Eumillipes persephone, the first species known to have 1,000 or more legs, possessing 1,306 of them. [27] Pill millipedes are much shorter, and are capable of rolling up into a ball, like pillbugs.

Symphyla

Symphylans, or garden centipedes, are closely related to centipedes and millipedes. [28] [29] They are 3 to 6 cm long, and have 6 to 12 pairs of legs, depending on their life stage. [28] [29] [30] Their eggs, which are white and spherical and covered with small hexagonal ridges, are laid in batches of 4 to 25 at a time, and usually take up to 40 days to hatch. [28] [29] [30] There are about 200 species worldwide. [31]

Pauropoda

A Eurypauropodid Pauropod. Eurypauropodid (12742282145) crop.jpg
A Eurypauropodid Pauropod.

Pauropoda is another small group of small myriapods. They are typically 0.5–2.0 mm long and live in the soil on all continents except Antarctica.[ citation needed ] Over 700 species have been described. [22] They are believed to be the sister group to millipedes, and have the dorsal tergites fused across pairs of segments, similar to the more complete fusion of segments seen in millipedes. [32]

Arthropleuridea

Arthropleura armata, an arthropleuridean 20211224 Arthropleura armata diagrammatic reconstruction.png
Arthropleura armata , an arthropleuridean

Arthropleurideans were ancient myriapods that are now extinct, known from the late Silurian to the Permian. The most famous members are from the genus Arthropleura , which was a giant, probably herbivorous, animal that could be up to 2.63 metres (8 ft 8 in) long, [33] but the group also includes species less than 1 cm (0.39 in). Arthropleuridea was historically considered a distinct class of myriapods, but since 2000 scientific consensus has viewed the group as a subset of millipedes, although the relationship of arthropleurideans to other millipedes and to each other is debated. [34] [35]

Myriapod relationships

Some of the various hypotheses of myriapod phylogeny. Morphological studies (trees a and b) support a sister grouping of Diplopoda and Pauropoda, while studies of DNA or amino acid similarities suggest a variety of different relationships, including the relationship of Pauropoda and Symphyla in tree c. Various myriapod phylogenies.png
Some of the various hypotheses of myriapod phylogeny. Morphological studies (trees a and b) support a sister grouping of Diplopoda and Pauropoda, while studies of DNA or amino acid similarities suggest a variety of different relationships, including the relationship of Pauropoda and Symphyla in tree c.

A variety of groupings (clades) of the myriapod classes have been proposed, some of which are mutually exclusive, and all of which represent hypotheses of evolutionary relationships. Traditional relationships supported by morphological similarities (anatomical or developmental similarities) are challenged by newer relationships supported by molecular evidence (including DNA sequence and amino acid similarities). [36] [37]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Millipede</span> Class of arthropods

Millipedes are a group of arthropods that are characterised by having two pairs of jointed legs on most body segments; they are known scientifically as the class Diplopoda, the name derived from this feature. Each double-legged segment is a result of two single segments fused together. Most millipedes have very elongated cylindrical or flattened bodies with more than 20 segments, while pill millipedes are shorter and can roll into a tight ball. Although the name "millipede" derives from Latin for "thousand feet", no species was known to have 1,000 or more until the discovery in 2020 of Eumillipes persephone, which can have over 1,300 legs. There are approximately 12,000 named species classified into 16 orders and around 140 families, making Diplopoda the largest class of myriapods, an arthropod group which also includes centipedes and other multi-legged creatures.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Centipede</span> Many-legged arthropods with elongated bodies

Centipedes are predatory arthropods belonging to the class Chilopoda of the subphylum Myriapoda, an arthropod group which includes millipedes and other multi-legged animals. Centipedes are elongated segmented (metameric) creatures with one pair of legs per body segment. All centipedes are venomous and can inflict painful stings, injecting their venom through pincer-like appendages known as forcipules or toxicognaths, which are actually modified legs instead of fangs. Despite the name, no centipede has exactly 100 pairs of legs; the number of pairs of legs is an odd number that ranges from 15 pairs to 191 pairs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pauropoda</span> Class of arthropods

Pauropoda is a class of small, pale, millipede-like arthropods in the subphylum Myriapoda. More than 900 species in twelve families are found worldwide, living in soil and leaf mold. Pauropods look like centipedes or millipedes and may be a sister group of the latter, but a close relationship with Symphyla has also been posited. The name Pauropoda derives from the Greek pauros and pous or podus, because most species in this class have only nine pairs of legs as adults, a smaller number than those found among adults in any other class of myriapods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Symphyla</span> Class of many-legged arthropods

Symphylans, also known as garden centipedes or pseudocentipedes, are soil-dwelling arthropods of the class Symphyla in the subphylum Myriapoda. Symphylans resemble centipedes, but are very small, non-venomous, and only distantly related to both centipedes and millipedes. More than 200 species are known worldwide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arthropleuridea</span> Extinct subclass of millipedes

Arthropleuridea is an extinct subclass of myriapod arthropods that flourished during the Carboniferous period, having first arisen during the Silurian, and perishing in the Early Permian. Members are characterized by possessing diplosegement paranotal tergal lobes separated from the body axis by a suture, and by sclerotized plates buttressing the leg insertions. Despite their unique features, recent phylogenetic research suggests Arthropleuridea be included among millipedes in the class Diplopoda. The subclass contains three recognized orders, each with a single genus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scolopendromorpha</span> Order of centipedes

The Scolopendromorpha, also known as tropical centipedes and bark centipedes, are an order of centipedes whose members are epimorphic and usually possess 21 or 23 trunk segments with the same number of paired legs. The number of leg pairs is fixed at 21 for most species in this order and fixed at 23 for the remaining species, except for two species with intraspecific variation: Scolopendropsis bahiensis, which has 21 or 23 leg pairs, and Scolopendropsis duplicata, which has 39 or 43 leg pairs. Species in this order have antennae with 17 or more segments. The order comprises the five families Cryptopidae, Scolopendridae, Mimopidae, Scolopocryptopidae, and Plutoniumidae. Nearly all species in the family Scolopendridae have four ocelli on each side of the head, and the genus Mimops features a pale area often considered an ocellus on each side of the head, whereas the other three families are blind. Species in the family Scolopocryptopidae have 23 leg-bearing segments, whereas species in all other families in this order have only 21 leg-bearing segments. The only 3 known amphibious centipedes, Scolopendra cataracta, Scolopendra paradoxa and Scolopendra alcyona belong to this order.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scutigeromorpha</span> Order of centipedes

Scutigeromorpha is an order of centipedes also known as house centipedes. These centipedes are found in the temperate and tropical parts of every continent except Antarctica, with their distribution significantly expanded by the introduction of the Mediterranean species Scutigera coleoptrata throughout Europe, Asia, and North America. The common species S. coleoptrata is a typical representative of this order, lying in wait for other arthropods, then seizing prey using great speed, and all species in this order reflect adaptations for this mode of life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Craterostigmomorpha</span> Order of centipedes

The Craterostigmomorpha are the least diverse centipede clade, comprising only two extant species, both in the genus Craterostigmus. Their geographic range is restricted to Tasmania and New Zealand. There is a single ocellus on each side of the head capsule. They have a distinct body plan; their anamorphosis comprises a single stage: in their first moult, they grow from having 12 trunk segments to having 15. Adult centipedes in this order, like those in Scutigeromorpha and Lithobiomorpha, have 15 leg-bearing segments. Their low diversity and intermediate position between the primitive anamorphic centipedes and the derived Epimorpha has led to them being likened to the platypus. They represent the survivors of a once diverse clade. Maternal brooding unites the Craterostigmomorpha with the Epimorpha into the clade Phylactometria which includes Craterostigmomorpha, Scolopendromorpha, and Geophilomorpha. This trait is thought to be closely linked with the presence of sternal pores, which secrete sticky or noxious secretions, which mainly serve to repel predators and parasites. The presence of these pores on the Devonian Devonobius which is included in own order Devonobiomorpha permits its inclusion in this clade, allowing its divergence of Lithobiomorpha from Phylactometria to be dated to 375 million years ago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arthropod</span> Phylum of invertebrates with jointed exoskeletons

Arthropods are invertebrates in the phylum Arthropoda. They possess an exoskeleton with a cuticle made of chitin, often mineralised with calcium carbonate, a body with differentiated (metameric) segments, and paired jointed appendages. In order to keep growing, they must go through stages of moulting, a process by which they shed their exoskeleton to reveal a new one. They are an extremely diverse group, with up to 10 million species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Himantariidae</span> Family of centipedes

Himantariidae is a monophyletic family of centipedes in the order Geophilomorpha and superfamily Himantarioidea, found almost exclusively in the Northern Hemisphere. Centipedes in this family feature a short head with a concave labral margin bearing a row of denticles, a single dentate lamella and some pectinate lamellae on each mandible, second maxillae with strongly tapering telopodites and slightly spatulate claws, and a stout forcipular segment with short forcipules and a wide tergite; the ultimate legs usually have no pretarsus, and the female gonopods are distinct and biarticulate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polyxenida</span> Order of millipedes

Polyxenida is an order of millipedes readily distinguished by a unique body plan consisting of a soft, non-calcified body ornamented with tufts of bristles – traits that have inspired the common names "bristly millipedes" or "pincushion millipedes". There are at least 86 species in four families worldwide, and are the only living members of the subclass Penicillata.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Archipolypoda</span> Extinct group of millipedes

Archipolypoda is an extinct group of millipedes known from fossils in Europe and North America and containing the earliest known land animals. The Archipolypoda was erected by Scudder (1882) but redefined in 2005 with the description of several new species from Scotland. Distinguishing characteristics include relatively large eyes with densely packed ocelli, and modified leg pairs on the 8th body ring. Some species had prominent spines while others had a flattened appearance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oryidae</span> Family of centipedes

Oryidae is a monophyletic family of soil centipedes belonging to the superfamily Himantarioidea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mecistocephalidae</span> Family of centipedes

Mecistocephalidae is a monophyletic family of centipedes in the order Geophilomorpha. It is the only family in the suborder Placodesmata. Most species in this family live in tropical or subtropical regions, but some occur in temperate regions. This family is the third most diverse in the order Geophiliomorpha, with about 170 species, including about 130 species in the genus Mecistocephalus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Schendylidae</span> Family of centipedes

Schendylidae is a family of centipedes in the order Geophilomorpha found in the Americas, the Palearctic region, Africa, Madagascar, Australia, and southeast Asia, and also on some Pacific islands.

<i>Kampecaris</i> Extinct genus of myriapod

Kampecaris is an extinct genus comprising the Kampecarida, an enigmatic group of millipede-like arthropods, from the Silurian and early Devonian periods of Scotland and England. They are among the oldest known land-dwelling animals. They were small, short-bodied animals with three recognizable sections: an oval head divided along the midline, ten limb-bearing segments forming a cylindrical trunk that tapered slightly towards the front, and a characteristic swollen tail formed by a modified segment that tapers at its rear into an "anal segment". The cuticle forming their exoskeletons was thick, heavily calcified, and composed of two layers.

Dignathodontidae is a monophyletic clade of soil centipedes in the family Geophilidae found in the Mediterranean region, extending to Macaronesia, Caucasus, and western and central Europe. The clade is characterized by a gradually anteriorly tapered body, a short head with non-attenuated antennae, and a poorly sclerotized labrum with tubercles. The number of legs in this clade varies within as well as among species and ranges from 43 pairs to 153 pairs of legs. Species in this clade tend to have more leg-bearing segments and greater intraspecific variability in this number than generally found in the family Geophilidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ballophilidae</span>

Ballophilidae is a monophyletic group of centipedes belonging to the order Geophilomorpha and superfamily Himantarioidea. Authorities now dismiss this group as a family, citing phylogenetic analysis, and instead refer to this clade as Ballophilinae, a possible subfamily within the family Schendylidae. Centipedes in this clade differ from others in the family Schendylidae by having bodies tapered toward the anterior tip, short heads, slender forcipules that are well apart, and an undivided lamina for the female gonopods. Centipedes in this clade are found in most tropical regions.

Gonibregmatidae are a paraphyletic family of soil centipedes belonging to the superfamily Geophiloidea.

References

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  34. ↑ Wilson, Heather M.; Shear, William A. (2000). "Microdecemplicida, a new order of minute arthropleurideans (Arthropoda: Myriapoda) from the Devonian of New York State, U.S.A.". Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences. 90 (4): 351–375. doi:10.1017/S0263593300002674. S2CID   129597005.
  35. ↑ Shear, William A.; Edgecombe, Gregory D. (2010). "The geological record and phylogeny of the Myriapoda". Arthropod Structure & Development. 39 (2–3): 174–190. Bibcode:2010ArtSD..39..174S. doi:10.1016/j.asd.2009.11.002. PMID   19944188.
  36. ↑ Edgecombe GD; Giribet G (2002). "Myriapod phylogeny and the relationships of Chilopoda" (PDF). In J Llorente Bousquets; JJ Morrone; HP Ulloa (eds.). Biodiversidad, Taxonomia y Biogeografia de Artropodos de Mexico: Hacia una S´ıntesis de su Conocimiento. Univ. Nac. Aut´on Mexico: Prensas Ciencias. pp. 143–168.
  37. 1 2 Miyazawa, Hideyuki; Ueda, Chiaki; Yahata, Kensuke; Su, Zhi-Hui (2014). "Molecular phylogeny of Myriapoda provides insights into evolutionary patterns of the mode in post-embryonic development". Scientific Reports. 4 (4127): 4127. Bibcode:2014NatSR...4E4127M. doi:10.1038/srep04127. PMC   3927213 . PMID   24535281.
  38. ↑ Zwick, Andreas; Regier, Jerome C.; Zwickl, Derrick J.; Gadagkar, Sudhindra R. (2012). "Resolving Discrepancy between Nucleotides and Amino Acids in Deep-Level Arthropod Phylogenomics: Differentiating Serine Codons in 21-Amino-Acid Models". PLOS ONE. 7 (11): e47450. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...747450Z. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0047450 . PMC   3502419 . PMID   23185239.
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