Skyactiv (branded as SKYACTIV) is a brand name for a series of automobile technologies developed by Mazda that increase fuel efficiency and engine output. The initial announcement of the Skyactiv technologies included new engines, transmissions, body, and chassis, which appeared in Mazda products from 2011 onwards.[1][2][3][4]
The precursor of Skyactiv, which featured a Mazda Sky-G 2.3-liter direct injection gas engine, a Mazda Sky-D 2.2-liter diesel engine, a Sky-Drive automatic transmission, a Mazda Kiyora with Sky-G 1.3 engine and Sky-Drive automatic transmission, was unveiled at the 40th Tokyo Motor Show in 2008.[5][6] The Skyactiv concept features a revised suspension geometry, improved automatic and manual transmission, and various improvements to Mazda's L- engine such as direct injection, upgraded exhaust manifold, increased compression ratio for cleaner burn and higher thermal efficiency, among other improvements. Mazda's previous chassis for the Mazda3 and Mazda6 were carried over to the new vehicles.
The Skyactiv-G[7] is a family of direct injection petrol engines. The engine compression ratio is increased to 14.0:1. To reduce the risk of engine knock at high compression, residual gas is reduced by using 4-2-1 engine exhaust systems, implementing a piston cavity, and optimizing fuel injection. In addition, combustion duration is shortened by intensifying air flow, increasing injection pressure, and using multi-hole injectors.
It features an all-aluminum construction with chain-driven dual overhead camshafts with VVT and gasoline direct injection; with direct ignition, it meets ULEV emission standards. Skyactiv-G engines for the U.S. market have a lower compression ratio of 13:1, allowing them to operate on standard instead of premium fuel with an approximate 3-5 percent reduction in torque and fuel economy.[8]
1.3 L
The Skyactiv-G 1.3 (P3-VPS) is a naturally aspirated variant with 1,298cc (79.2cuin) engine displacement and features a 71.0mm (2.80in) bore and an 82.0mm (3.23in) stroke. The engine was unveiled at the 2011 Automotive Engineering Exposition.[9][10]
Five Mazda engineers were awarded the 2011 Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers Medal on April 20, 2012 specifically for the "development of a petrol engine (1.3 L) with a super-high compression ratio and achieving fuel efficiency of 30 km per litre (under Japan's 10-15 cycle)".[11] The engine was first used in the Mazda Demio 1.3-Skyactiv, being the only Skyactiv engine to be paired with a CVT.[12][13]
It is rated at 62kW (84PS; 83hp) and 113N⋅m (83lbf⋅ft).[14]
The Skyactiv-G 1.5, or (PR-VP RS) for RWD applications and (P5 VPS F-P5) for FWD applications, is a 1,496cc (91.3cuin) naturally aspirated engine with a 74.5mm (2.93in) bore and an 85.8mm (3.38in) stroke.
This 4 cylinder engine was introduced in the 14MY Mazda3 for the Asian and European markets. It develops 85kW (114hp) at 6,000 rpm and 111lb⋅ft (150N⋅m) of torque at 4,000 rpm (Asian markets). This petrol engine in the Skyactiv line-up achieves a high compression ratio of 13.0:1 (14.0:1 in some markets). It greatly improves dynamic performance and fuel economy over the MZR 1.5 engine of the previous model.
The Skyactiv-G 2.0 (PE-VPS) was the first engine in the Skyactiv-G family to be produced.
This naturally aspirated engine features an engine displacement of 1,998cc (2.0L; 121.9cuin), with a bore X stroke of 83.5mm ×91.2mm (3.29in ×3.59in). The U.S. version has a compression ratio of 13.0:1 producing 155bhp (157PS; 116kW) at 6000 rpm and 200N⋅m (148lbf⋅ft) of torque at 4600 rpm.[15] In some markets, a variant with Flexifuel E85 is available, producing 162bhp (164PS; 121kW) and 210N⋅m (155lbf⋅ft) of torque.
According to Mazda, it is more fuel efficient than the engine it replaces. Versus the engine in the 2011 Mazda3 (with an automatic transmission), fuel economy improved from 10.2L/100km (23mpg‑US) to 8.4L/100km (28mpg‑US) in city driving, and from 7.1L/100km (33mpg‑US) to 5.8L/100km (41mpg‑US) in highway driving, as compared to the 2011 model.[16]
Mazda Skyactiv 2.0
The MX-5's 2019 "ND2" revision received an updated engine producing 181bhp (184PS; 135kW) with maximum RPM raised from 6800 to 7500 rpm and includes a larger intake manifold, increased injection pressure and a new exhaust system that scavenges the cylinders more quickly.[17]
The Skyactiv-G 2.5 (PY-VPS) is a 2,488cc (151.8cuin) naturally aspirated engine first used in the 2013 Mazda 6 and features an 89.0mm (3.50in) bore and a 100.0mm (3.94in) stroke.
The U.S. version with a 13.0:1 compression ratio produces 187hp (190PS; 139kW) at 6,000 rpm and 252N⋅m (186lb⋅ft) of torque at 4,000 rpm.[18] In 2023, the engine's power output was increased to 191hp (194PS; 142kW), although the torque remained the same.[19]
Skyactiv-G 2.5 engines manufactured from 2018 onwards feature cylinder deactivation to improve fuel efficiency.[20] In July 2019, approximately 262,000 Mazda vehicles using the engine were recalled for a faulty powertrain control module that may cause a misfire or a loss in power.[21]
The turbocharged version (PY-VPTS) operates with a 10.5:1 compression ratio,[22] and produces 250hp (250PS; 190kW) at 5,000 rpm and 430N⋅m (320lb⋅ft) at 2,500 rpm on 93 AKI octane (98 RON) gasoline, and 227hp (230PS; 169kW) at 5,000 rpm and 420N⋅m (310lb⋅ft) at 2,000 rpm on 87 AKI octane (91 RON).[23] Maximum boost pressure is 17.4 psi. A specially-designed set of passages and butterfly valves act at low engine RPMs to force exhaust gases through smaller orifices, spooling the turbo more quickly and minimizing turbo lag. Additionally, the engine has a unique 4-3-1 exhaust manifold to improve exhaust scavenging and a cooled exhaust gas recirculation system, both designed to reduce combustion chamber temperatures and allow for increased boost with better fuel economy.[24] On the CX-9 and CX-5, the engine is equipped with an air-to-air intercooler, while on the Mazda3 and CX-30, an air-to-liquid intercooler is instead integrated into the intake manifold to save space.
For the CX-60, the engine is paired with a plug-in hybrid system which includes a 134hp (136PS; 100kW) electric motor and a 17.8 kWh lithium-ion battery. Combined outputs are 323hp (327PS; 241kW) and 500N⋅m (51.0kg⋅m; 369lb⋅ft) of torque.[25]
The Skyactiv-G 3.3 is a longitudinally-positioned, inline-six 3.3-litre turbocharged petrol engine and features a 86.0mm (3.39in) bore and an 94.2mm (3.71in) stroke. It was introduced in the Mazda CX-90 in 2023 and comes in two outputs. It produces 209–253.5kW (280–340hp; 284–345PS) and 450–500N⋅m (332–369lb⋅ft).[27]
Skyactiv-X is the first commercial petrol engine to use homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI), in which the fuel-air mixture ignites spontaneously when compressed by a smaller, separately ignited charge of fuel. This allows it to reach a compression ratio of 16:1, an improvement over the 14.0:1 ratio of the Skyactiv-G. The engine can operate much leaner than a conventional spark ignition engine, reducing fuel consumption and emissions.[28][29]
This engine targets 20-30% greater fuel efficiency by utilising HCCI technology. In order to handle ignition problems caused by compression ignition, each cylinder also incorporates a spark plug featuring Spark Controlled Compression Ignition (SPCCI) technology.[30][bettersourceneeded] A small Roots-type supercharger further expands the compression ignition operating window by feeding more air into the engine, leaning out the mixture sufficiently for compression ignition even at higher speeds.[31]
SPCCI works by drawing in a lean, homogeneous air-fuel mixture, it then compresses the mixture until it approaches the point at which it would spontaneously detonate. A second injector then adds a secondary charge of fuel directly on the spark plug. This secondary charge is ignited by the spark plug, causing the cylinder pressure to very quickly rise to a point where the rest of the fuel undergoes compression ignition. The presence of the spark plug allows the engine to also operate as a spark-ignition engine under some operating conditions, such as high-speed high-load situations. Revealed June 5, 2019, the output is 132kW (177hp) and 224N⋅m (165lbf⋅ft).[30]
Mazda is developing an inline-six variant of the Skyactiv-X, with displacements of 3.0 and 3.3 liters and a rear-wheel-drive layout. It was believed that production of the new engine would begin in 2022 with the Mazda CX-60 and possibly a fourth generation rear-wheel drive Mazda6.[32][33][25] However, according to Road & Track magazine, in the March 2022 edition of Autocar magazine Mazda Europe's Development & Engineering Senior Manager Joachim Kunz stated that there were no plans for a Mazda rear drive sedan, since Mazda was prioritizing SUV sales.[34]
Skyactiv-D is a family of turbocharged diesel engines, designed to comply with global emissions regulations.
To eliminate the need of NOx and particulate treatment in contemporary diesel engines, the cylinder compression ratio is reduced to 14.0:1. Cold engine start is achieved via multi-hole piezo injectors with 3 programmable injection patterns, and adoption of ceramic glow plugs. Engine misfiring is prevented via variable valve lift at exhaust, which opens exhaust valves during the intake stroke, which in turn increases engine air temperature. The Skyactiv-D also uses a two-stage turbocharger, in which one small and one large turbo are selectively operated, according to driving conditions.
1.5 L
The Skyactiv-D 1.5 (S5-DPTS/S5-DPTR) is a 1,497cc (91.4cuin) engine first introduced in the fourth generation Mazda Demio/Mazda2. It features a compression ratio of 14:1.[35]
The Skyactiv-D 2.2 (SH-VPTS/SH-VPTR) is a 2,191cc (133.7cuin) engine that was the first Skyactiv-D engine used in production vehicles. It was first used in the Mazda CX-5.[37][38] In the Mazda6, it produces 129kW (173hp) and 420N⋅m (310lb⋅ft).[39] An upgraded version of the Skyactiv-D was run in the 2013 Rolex Sports Car Series season and helped Mazda win the GX manufacturer's championship. The engine is slated to be used again in two Lola LMP2s in the United SportsCar Series.
The Skyactiv-D is the first low compression diesel in a production car, having a significantly lower compression in the first generation of 14:1 rather than typical compression ratios of 16:1 and beyond.[42] Numerous university studies have investigated the benefits of low compression diesel for decades, with the major benefit, noted in single cylinder university tests, being a drastic reduction in NOx emissions while also reducing particulate matter and combustion noise.[43][44] These studies all concluded that while there were noticeable reductions in emissions, this came at the expense of difficult cold starts. Mazda resolved this in the Skyactiv-D by using piezoelectric fuel injectors with multiple nozzles that change their pattern depending on operating conditions. Furthermore, exhaust valves are left slightly open as the engine starts, causing exhaust gases to be sucked into the cylinders and help the engine warm up quickly.[42]
Early issues
The CX-5 with Skyactiv-D engines were reported to have oil levels rising earlier than expected upon release, which required owners to check the vehicle's engine oil every 1000 kilometres or every month and return to the dealer if the oil appeared over the level of the dipstick.[45] This procedure was initiated by Mazda worldwide as a precaution. Mazda resolved the issue in the first few months of the engine's availability via a software revision and a new dipsticks with a corrected level.[citation needed]
Emission standards and tests
At launch in 2012, Mazda claimed the Skyactiv-D engine would only comply with Euro 5 emission standards (NOx of 0.18 g/km), and further work was required to achieve stricter emission standards.[citation needed]
In the aftermath of the Volkswagen emissions scandal, the Japanese government performed testing of all diesel engines produced in Japan to ensure Japanese manufacturers were not falsifying emissions as had been done by Volkswagen. It was determined that the Skyactiv-D engine was the only engine which tested at or near the standard.[46]
Achieving US EPA emission standards
At the 2019 New York Motor show, Mazda announced that it would commence pre-sales of the 2019 CX-5 with the Skyactiv-D 2.2L engine.[47] Changes required to achieve the US EPA emissions standards, however, resulted in significant performance and economy penalties when compared with the Euro 5 compliant engine, as illustrated below.
The Euro stage V compliant Australian Skyactiv-D 2.2L has the following specifications:[48]
Power: 140kW (190hp) @ 4,500rpm
Torque: 450N⋅m (330lbf⋅ft) @ 2,000rpm
Fuel consumption (Australian ADR 81/02)
Combined 5.7 L/100km (41.3 mpg)
City 6.5 L/100km (36.2 mpg)
Highway 5.2 L/100km (45.2 mpg)
The US EPA compliant US Skyactiv-D 2.2l has the following specifications:[49]
Power: 168hp @ 4,000rpm
Torque: 290lb-ft @ 2,000rpm
EPA Estimated fuel economy:
City 27 mpg
Highway 30 mpg
Recall
In September 2016, Mazda recalled 130,000 vehicles in Japan over a defect that could lead to diesel engine failure.[50]
Although most problems were fixed later on, the 2.2 suffered from bad carbon build up that would block the intake manifold. Other faults include a turbo diversion valve failure that required replacement of the complete twin turbo unit.
Mazda recalled the 2012 to 2018 model year diesel Mazda 3, Mazda 6 and CX-5 because of a build-up of carbon deposits.[51]
Skyactiv-Hybrid
The Skyactiv-Hybrid technology is an electric hybrid engine technology using Skyactiv-G engine with technology from Toyota's Hybrid Synergy Drive, originally licensed for use with the Sky engine for vehicles sold in 2013.[52][53]
The first retail Mazda Skyactiv-Hybrid vehicle, a Mazda3 Skyactiv-Hybrid with Skyactiv-G 2.0 engine with 14:1 compression, was unveiled at the 2013 Tokyo Motor Show.[54][55]
Skyactiv-CNG
The Skyactiv-CNG engine is powered by compressed natural gas. The first retail Mazda Skyactiv-CNG prototype vehicle, a Mazda3 Skyactiv-CNG Concept, was unveiled in 2013 Tokyo Motor Show.[54][55][56][57]
Skyactiv-R
The Skyactiv-R engine is Mazda's new generation rotary engine.
The Mazda RX-Vision Concept, powered by a Skyactiv-R rotary engine, was unveiled in 2015 Tokyo Motor Show.[58]
In 2023, Mazda unveiled the first production version of this generation of rotary engines. Used in the Mazda MX-30 R-EV, the engine provides 75hp at 4500rpm and has a displacement of 830cc in a single-rotor design.[59]
e-Skyactiv
e-Skyactiv is the battery-electric powertrain.[60]
Skyactiv-Drive is a family of automatic transmissions named SKY-Drive. Mazda rejected dual-clutch technology in automatic transmissions because the dual-clutch behavior in certain situations was sub-optimal.[61] Instead, Mazda chose to re-design the conventional automatic transmission, making the torque converter take less duty while a multi-plate clutch disengages the torque converter most of the time. The new Skyactiv automatic transmission is designed to have six or eight gears forward, one reverse gear, a short torque converter, and a clutch integrated with the torque converter.[62][25]
Skyactiv-MT
Skyactiv-MT is a family of manual transmissions. To achieve lighter shift effort with a short shift lever stroke, the lever ratio is increased. However, to overcome the shorter internal stroke, a small module spline is used. Shift throws are reduced by 15 percent, making it the shortest shifting of any passenger car.[63]
To reduce weight, the triple-shafted gear train is designed with the reverse and first gears on the same shaft, and uses a shorter secondary shaft.
Skyactiv Multi-Solution Scalable Architecture
The Skyactiv Multi-Solution Scalable Architecture is a car platform that supports both front-wheel drive models with a transverse engine layout (under the Small Product Group) and rear-wheel drive cars with a longitudinal engine layout (under the Large Product Group).[64]
The compression ratio is the ratio between the volume of the cylinder and combustion chamber in an internal combustion engine at their maximum and minimum values.
The Mazda Tribute is a compact SUV made by Japanese automaker Mazda from 2000 to 2011. It was jointly developed with Ford Motor Company and based on the front-wheel drive Mazda 626 platform, which was in turn the basis for the similar Ford Escape on the CD2 platform. The Tribute was priced below the Ford Escape and Mercury Mariner in Ford's CD2 SUV lineup.
The F engine family from Mazda is a mid-sized inline-four piston engine with iron block, alloy head and belt-driven SOHC and DOHC configurations. Introduced in 1983 as the 1.6-litre F6, this engine was found in the Mazda B-Series truck and Mazda G platform models such as Mazda 626/Capella as well as many other models internationally including Mazda Bongo and Ford Freda clone, Mazda B-series based Ford Courier, Mazda 929 HC and the GD platform-based Ford Probe
Mazda has a long history of building its own diesel engines, with the exception of a few units that were built under license.
The Mazda3 is a compact car manufactured by Mazda. It was first introduced in 2003 as a 2004 model, replacing the Familia/323/Protegé in the C-segment.
The Mazda CX-7 is a mid-size crossover SUV from Mazda, and is the production version of the MX-Crossport concept car. It was shown publicly for the first time at the 2006 LA Auto Show in January. Production officially began on February 20, 2006 in Mazda's Ujina #2 factory in Hiroshima, and went on sale in April 2006 as a 2007 model. The CX-7 was Mazda's first mid-size SUV since the Navajo was discontinued in 1994, although the CX-7 is considered more of a 'Soft Roader'.
Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) is a form of internal combustion in which well-mixed fuel and oxidizer are compressed to the point of auto-ignition. As in other forms of combustion, this exothermic reaction produces heat that can be transformed into work in a heat engine.
The Ford Duratec V6, is an aluminum DOHC V6 engine with a 60° bank angle introduced in 1993 with the Ford Mondeo. The primary engineering input came from Porsche, who was developing a similar V6 before selling the engineering to Ford, and Cosworth, who helped with cylinder head manufacturing. The Jaguar AJ-V6 engine is similar but adds variable valve timing.
The Mazda CX-9 is a mid-size crossover SUV manufactured by Mazda in Japan since 2006 through two generations With three-row seating, it was Mazda's largest passenger vehicle until the arrival of the CX-90.
The Mazdaspeed3 is a sport compact hatchback introduced for the 2007 model year by Mazdaspeed and produced until 2013. The Mazdaspeed3 is a performance-enhanced version of the 5-door Mazda3.
The Mazda CX-5 is a compact crossover SUV produced by Mazda since 2012. A successor to both the Tribute and the slightly larger CX-7, it is Mazda's first model to feature the "Kodo" design language and the first model to be fully developed with a range of technologies branded as Skyactiv, including a rigid, lightweight platform combined with a series of engines and transmissions to reduce emissions and fuel consumption.
The ZR engine is a family of straight-four 16-valve all-aluminum and water cooled gasoline engines with a die-cast aluminum block and variable valve timing developed by Toyota Motor Corporation, produced from 2007. Engines displace from 1.6 to 2.0 liters. Most engines in this family are equipped with Toyota's dual VVT-i technology that optimizes both intake and exhaust valve timing. This engine family is also the first to use Toyota's Valvematic system, first appearing on the Noah and Voxy in 2007 and then the European Avensis in 2009.
The DiesOtto motor is an experimental automobile engine that "is said to incorporate the benefits of a diesel engine, but runs on gasoline instead."
The fifth-generation Honda Civic is an automobile produced by Honda from 1991 until 1995. It debuted in Japan on September 9, 1991. At its introduction, it won the Car of the Year Japan award for the second time. Fifth-generation Civics were larger than their predecessors, had more aerodynamic bodies, and the wheelbase was increased to 257 cm (101.3 inches)—for the three-door hatchback—and to 262 cm (103.2 inches)—for the four-door sedan. The Civic Shuttle station wagon was not part of the fifth generation and was dropped for overseas markets, while the previous-generation wagon continued in Japan and Europe.
The Mazda L-series is a mid-sized inline 4-cylinder gasoline piston engine designed by Mazda as part of their MZR family, ranging in displacement from 1.8 to 2.5 liters. Introduced in 2001, it is the evolution of the cast-iron block F-engine. It was co-developed with Ford, who owned a controlling stake in Mazda at the time. Ford uses it as their 1.8 L to 2.5 L Duratec world engine and holds a license to develop engines based off the L-series in perpetuity.
The Toyota NR engine family is a series of small inline-four piston engines designed and manufactured by Toyota, with capacities between 1.2 and 1.5 litres.
The Mazda6 (GJ/GL) is the third and current generation of the Mazda6. The sedan was unveiled during Moscow International Automobile Salon on 29 August 2012, and the station wagon version followed during the 2012 Paris Motor Show in the following month. In this generation, there are only 4-door sedan and 5-door station wagon versions available.
The Mazda2 is a subcompact/supermini (B-segment) car manufactured and marketed by Mazda since 2002, currently in its third generation. An entry-level model of the brand in markets outside Japan, the Mazda2 is positioned below the Mazda3. The Mazda2 has also been marketed as the Mazda Demio, while its direct predecessor was exported as the Mazda 121.
The Mazda CX-60 is a mid-size crossover SUV produced by the Japanese automobile manufacturer Mazda since 2022. It is the first vehicle to use Mazda's rear- and all-wheel drive platform with longitudinal engine layout categorised as Large Product Group, which includes a line-up of straight-six engines. It is also the first Mazda vehicle to feature a plug-in hybrid option.
The Mazda CX-90 is a full-size crossover SUV with three-row seating produced by the Japanese automaker Mazda. It is the second vehicle to use Mazda's rear- and all-wheel drive with longitudinal engine layout categorized as Large Product Group after the CX-60. The largest Mazda SUV to date, the CX-90 replaced the CX-9.
↑ "Turning Up the Pressure to Keep Gas in the Game". New York Times. 11 November 2011. Retrieved 14 November 2011. But the most daring advance is the 2-litre Skyactiv-G gasoline engine. That 4-cylinder power plant made its North American debut in the 2012 Mazda 3, where it raised the fuel economy rating to 8.5 L/100km in town and 5.8 on the highway with an automatic transmission, from 24/33 for the 2011 model sedan with a 2-litre engine. ...
↑ Pacaud, P.; Perrin, H.; Laget, O. (2009). "Cold Start on Diesel Engine: Is Low Compression Ratio Compatible with Cold Start Requirements?". SAE International Journal of Engines. 1 (1): 831–849. ISSN1946-3936. JSTOR26308324.
↑ Swan, Tony (February 2013). "2014 Mazda 6 2.5L – First Drive Review". Car and Driver. Retrieved 2 April 2014. The engineering team nixed a CVT option early on and then decided against a dual-clutch type a little later in the planning process. The reasoning: A dual-clutch automated manual delivers sportier performance, but Mazda felt it was a little abrupt for everyday urban driving. As a result, the new self-shifter is a conventional automatic, with paddle shifters available in higher trim levels.
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