Courses are listed reading from left to right facing the front of the instrument, with the instrument standing vertically. On a majority of instruments, this places the notes from low to high pitch. Exceptions exist:
Instruments using reentrant tuning (e.g., the charango) may have a high string before a low string.
Instruments strung in the reverse direction (e.g. mountain dulcimer) will be noted with the highest sounding courses on the left and the lowest to the right.
A few instruments exist in "right-hand" and "left-hand" versions; left-handed instruments are not included here as separate entries, as their tuning is identical to the right-hand version, but with the strings in reverse order (e.g., a left-handed guitar).
Strings within a course are also given from left to right, facing the front of the instrument, with it standing vertically. Single-string courses are separated by spaces; multiple-string courses (i.e. paired or tripled strings) are shown with courses separated by bullet characters (•).
Scientific pitch notation
Pitch: Unless otherwise noted, contemporary western standard pitch (A4 = 440 Hz) and 12-tone equal temperament are assumed.[3]
Octaves are given in scientific pitch notation, with Middle C written as "C4". (The 'A' above Middle C would then be written as "A4"; the next higher octave begins on "C5"; the next lower octave on "C3"; etc.)[4]
Because stringed instruments are easily re-tuned, the concept of a "standard tuning" is somewhat flexible. Some instruments:
have a designated standard tuning (e.g., violin; guitar)
have more than one tuning considered "standard" (e.g. mejorana, ukulele)
do not have a standard tuning but rather a "common" tuning that is used more frequently than others (e.g., banjo; lap steel guitar)
are typically re-tuned to suit the music being played or the voice being accompanied and have no set "standard" at all (e.g., đàn nguyệt; Appalachian dulcimer)
Where more than one common tuning exists, the most common is given first and labeled "Standard" or "Standard/common". Other tunings will then be given under the heading "Alternates".
Cimbál, cymbalom, cymbalum, ţambal, tsymbaly and tsimbl, santur, santouri, sandouri
Hungary
* String number varies with size of instrument; bass courses are usually triple strung and higher courses typically quadruple strung. Range given is for a Concert Grand; other sizes with smaller, and with more extended ranges exist. Only lowest and highest octaves are given; intervening notes are tuned chromatically.
Mountain Dulcimer, Appalachian Dulcimer, Lap Dulcimer, Dulcimore, Delcimore, Delcimer
US
Most dulcimers are either 3 or 4 course; any or all courses may be doubled with a second, unison string—hence the number of different stringing possibilities.
Alternates listed here give a pitch for each whole course, regardless of number of strings.
Many variants are used; there is no fixed "standard" for the four-course.
Chromatic instruments exist, but traditionally dulcimers are fretted in diatonic intervals: whole (step), whole, half, whole, whole, whole, half.[15]
"Fiddle" describes a playing style more than a unique instrument; a fiddle is just a violin with a slightly different "set-up".
Standard AKA "Italian" or "orchestral" tuning, High Bass AKA "Old-time D tuning", Cross tuning AKA "High counter", Calico AKA "Black Mountain Rag" or the Swedish tunings: Trollstämning, or Näckastämning
* Number of strings varies, generally between 19 and 40; 34 strings is typical. Not all models have levers. Only lowest and highest octaves shown. Tuning proceeds through 4+1⁄2 octaves using the C diatonic scale.
Virginal, Spinet, Clavicytherium, Ottavino, Pedal Harpsichord, et al
Europe (Belgium?)
Many variants exist having differing number of keys, multiple keyboards, pedal boards, choirs of strings, etc., and they may have anywhere from about 120 to many hundreds of strings. Tuning is given for a typical single-keyboard, 5-octave instrument, for the main choir of strings. Only lowest and highest octaves are shown; intervening notes are tuned chromatically. Often tuning is in some musical temperament other than 12-tone equal temperament (common on modern pianos).
Stringing is given in reverse order, owing to the orientation of the instrument while playing. The first one (or two) strings are melody strings; others are drone strings. Other regional tuning variants exist.
Where octave doublings occur will often differ depending on the size of the instrument. The larger instruments commonly double the middle courses at the octave.
Scales roughly correspond to Western major, minor, and lydian scales, but are not in equal temperament. Any of the scales may be considered "standard".
A4 is closer to 430Hz than to the western standard (440Hz), and intervals are in just intonation and not equal temperament.
In some tunings alternate choices are available for strings 6 and 11 (indicated with a slash); whatever note is chosen these strings are always tuned one octave apart.
Originally a 4- or 5-string instrument; today often nearly identical to a 6-string western guitar, except for having a scalloped fingerboard and one less string.
[ * ] The number of strings and courses on a lute can vary widely depending on period and geographical region. Among the more common forms are 6, 7, 8, 10, and 13 courses. (Pictured: 8 course Renaissance Lute.)
[ * ] 10 strings is more or less standard now, but instruments with 6, 8, 12, and other numbers of strings, and 2, 3, or 4 necks exist. A different tuning is usually applied to each neck, but setups vary from player to player.
Pianoforte, Grand, Grand Piano, Concert Grand, Upright, Upright Piano, Spinet
Europe (Italy)
* About 2⁄3 of courses are triple strung; some lower courses are double strung; the remaining bases are single strung. All multi-strung courses are tuned to unisons. Exact number of strings varies by manufacturer and model, 220 – 240 is typical.[17] Only lowest and highest octaves are shown; tuning of the intervening notes is chromatic.
* About 2⁄3 of courses are triple strung; some lower courses are double strung; the remaining bases are single strung. All multi-strung courses are tuned to unisons. Only lowest and highest octaves are shown; tuning of the intervening notes is chromatic. These extended-range pianos are very expensive and uncommon.
[*] Instrument is still new enough that no one "standard" tuning has emerged. Chilean tuning (also a variant in Bolivia), one octave below the charango, is very common. Chilan variants (various octave doublings on courses 3, 4, and 5) depend on stringing—thinner strings are required for the high octaves in doubled courses. Argentine G6/Em7 tuning is also popular, which basically raises the pitch to that of the charangón.
*Classical Indian music has no absolute pitch. "Do" is tuned to a convenient note for any singers, or for the Raga being played, and the other strings are tuned relative to that reference.
The name comes from "Taropatch Fiddle" an early Hawaiian, slightly derogatory name for all Ukuleles used by the "Landed" Anglo Settlers however it came over to Mainland U.S.A. with the fiddle part dropped to describe an 8 string Ukulele
Same as bottom four strings of the guitar. A relatively new instrument; unlike the UBass (see below) it has sufficient volume to be played acoustically, and sounds more like a uke than a bass.
Same as bass guitar. A relatively new instrument that has to be amplified to be heard; tone is much like a double bass. Compared to the acoustic bass uke (see above), this is really a contrabass instrument.
The size up from a Soprano. The original name was used to try and convey that the Ukulele in question was a better and more professional than the standard model. The current size comes from when C. F. Martin & Co. started making a 4 string version of their Taropatch.
5-, 6- and 8- string versions exist: 5-string has 4th (lowest)) course doubled; 6-string has 1st (highest) and 3rd courses doubled (see Taropatch); 8-string has all 4 courses doubled (see Lili'u)
This is the modern Mariachi instrument. Vihuela also refers to many historic antecedents of the guitar, in various configurations, most of them currently obsolete.
Tuning is not absolute, and is not limited by Western equal temperament.
Zhengs also come with varying numbers of strings, typically from 16–26; the pentatonic tuning is extended to accommodate these extra (high and low) strings.
Varied open string chord sets and chromatic or diatonic tuning of additional open strings. The string tuning is often printed on the instrument itself. See the picture. No frets nor fingerboard.
Guitar zither, Chord zither, Fretless Zither
Austria, Germany, elsewhere.
May have from 12 to 50 strings, or more, depending on design
See also Autoharp which has diatonic and chromatic open strings, and a stop mechanism to produce chords.
↑ Marcuse, Sibyl; Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary; W. W. Norton & Company (1975).
↑ Randel, Don Michael, Ed.; The New Harvard Dictionary of Music; Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press (1986). p. 211.
↑ Backus, John; The Acoustical Foundations of Music; New York: W. W. Norton & Company (1975).
The guitar is a stringed musical instrument that is usually fretted and typically has six or twelve strings. It is usually held flat against the player's body and played by strumming or plucking the strings with the dominant hand, while simultaneously pressing selected strings against frets with the fingers of the opposite hand. A guitar pick may also be used to strike the strings. The sound of the guitar is projected either acoustically, by means of a resonant hollow chamber on the guitar, or amplified by an electronic pickup and an amplifier.
A mandolin is a stringed musical instrument in the lute family and is generally plucked with a pick. It most commonly has four courses of doubled strings tuned in unison, thus giving a total of eight strings. A variety of string types are used, with steel strings being the most common and usually the least expensive. The courses are typically tuned in an interval of perfect fifths, with the same tuning as a violin. Also, like the violin, it is the soprano member of a family that includes the mandola, octave mandolin, mandocello and mandobass.
In music, there are two common meanings for tuning:
The ukulele, also called a uke, is a member of the lute family of instruments of Portuguese origin and popularized in Hawaii. It generally employs four nylon strings.
In musical instrument classification, string instruments or chordophones, are musical instruments that produce sound from vibrating strings when a performer plays or sounds the strings in some manner.
Zithers are a class of stringed instruments. Historically, it could be any instrument of the psaltery family. In modern terminology, it is more specifically an instrument consisting of many strings stretched across a thin, flat body, the topic of this article.
The bouzouki is a musical instrument popular in Greece. It is a member of the long-necked lute family, with a round body with a flat top and a long neck with a fretted fingerboard. It has steel strings and is played with a plectrum producing a sharp metallic sound, reminiscent of a mandolin but pitched lower. It is the precursor to the Irish bouzouki, an instrument derived from the Greek bouzouki that is popular in Celtic, English, and North American folk music. There are two main types of Greek bouzouki: the trichordo (three-course) has three pairs of strings and the tetrachordo (four-course) has four pairs of strings. The instrument was brought to Greece in the early 1900s by Greek refugees from Anatolia, and quickly became the central instrument to the rebetiko genre and its music branches. It is now an important element of modern Laïko pop Greek music.
The cittern or cithren is a stringed instrument dating from the Renaissance. Modern scholars debate its exact history, but it is generally accepted that it is descended from the Medieval citole. Its flat-back design was simpler and cheaper to construct than the lute. It was also easier to play, smaller, less delicate and more portable. Played by people of all social classes, the cittern was a popular instrument of casual music-making much like the guitar is today.
The Appalachian dulcimer is a fretted string instrument of the zither family, typically with three or four strings, originally played in the Appalachian region of the United States. The body extends the length of the fingerboard, and its fretting is generally diatonic.
The trapezoidal yangqin is a Chinese hammered dulcimer, likely derived from the Iranian santur or the European dulcimer. It used to be written with the characters 洋琴, but over time the first character changed to 揚, which means "acclaimed". It is also spelled yang ch'in. Hammered dulcimers of various types are now very popular not only in China, but also Eastern Europe, the Middle East, India, Iran, and Pakistan. The instruments are also sometimes known by the names "santoor" and "cymbalom". This instrument had an influence on the Thai classical instrument, known as Khim (ขิม).
Guitar tunings are the assignment of pitches to the open strings of guitars, including classical guitars, acoustic guitars, and electric guitars. Tunings are described by the particular pitches that are made by notes in Western music. By convention, the notes are ordered and arranged from the lowest-pitched string to the highest-pitched string, or the thickest string to thinnest, or the lowest frequency to the highest. This sometimes confuses beginner guitarists, since the highest-pitched string is referred to as the 1st string, and the lowest-pitched is the 6th string.
The mandocello is a plucked string instrument of the mandolin family. It is larger than the mandolin, and is the baritone instrument of the mandolin family. Its eight strings are in four paired courses, with the strings in each course tuned in unison. Overall tuning of the courses is in fifths like a mandolin, but beginning on bass C (C2). It can be described as being to the mandolin what the cello is to the violin.
The Irish bouzouki is an adaptation of the Greek bouzouki. The newer Greek tetrachordo bouzouki was introduced into Irish traditional music in the mid-1960s by Johnny Moynihan of the folk group Sweeney's Men, who retuned it from its traditional Greek tuning C³F³A³D⁴ to G²D³A³D⁴, a tuning he had pioneered previously on the mandolin. Alec Finn, first in the Cana Band and subsequently in De Dannan, introduced the first Greek trichordo (3 course) bouzouki into Irish music.
Chorus is an audio effect that occurs when individual sounds with approximately the same time, and very similar pitches, converge. While similar sounds coming from multiple sources can occur naturally, as in the case of a choir or string orchestra, it can also be simulated using an electronic effects unit or signal processing device.
A course, on a stringed musical instrument, is either one string or two or more adjacent strings that are closely spaced relative to the other strings, and typically played as a single string. The strings in each multiple-string course are typically tuned in unison or an octave.
The octave mandolin or octave mandola is a fretted string instrument with four pairs of strings tuned in fifths, G−D−A−E, an octave below a mandolin. It is larger than the mandola, but smaller than the mandocello and its construction is similar to other instruments in the mandolin family. Usually the courses are all unison pairs but the lower two may sometimes be strung as octave pairs with the higher-pitched octave string on top so that it is hit before the thicker lower-pitched string. Alternate tunings of G−D−A−D and A−D−A−D are often employed by Celtic musicians.
Plucked string instruments are a subcategory of string instruments that are played by plucking the strings. Plucking is a way of pulling and releasing the string in such a way as to give it an impulse that causes the string to vibrate. Plucking can be done with either a finger or a plectrum.
On a stringed instrument, a break in an otherwise ascending order of string pitches is known as a re-entry. A re-entrant tuning, therefore, is a tuning which does not order all the strings from the lowest pitch to the highest pitch.
Each bass guitar tuning assigns pitches to the strings of an electric bass. Because pitches are associated with notes, bass-guitar tunings assign open notes to open strings. There are several techniques for accurately tuning the strings of an electric bass. Bass method or lesson books introduce one or more tuning techniques, such as:
The Mandobass is the largest member of the mandolin family, sometimes used as the bass instrument in mandolin orchestras. It is so large that players usually hold it like a double bass—upright and supported on an endpin that rests on the floor. The neck-scale length on a full-size mando-bass is similar to that of a standard orchestral double bass viol: about 43 inches (110 cm). The instrument is otherwise similar to the smaller, higher-pitched members of the mandolin family, having a fretted neck, a headstock with geared tuning machines, and a large resonating body often—but not always—shaped like other mandolins.
References
Brody, David; The Fiddler's Fakebook: The Ultimate Sourcebook For The Traditional Fiddler; Music Sales America (1992). ISBN0825602386
Dearling, Robert; Stringed Instruments; Chelsea House Publishing (2000). ISBN0791060926
Hanson, Mark; The Complete Book of Alternate Guitar Tunings; Music Sales America (1995). ISBN0936799137
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