Turkey's climate is varied and generally temperate, with the regions bordering the Mediterranean and Black Sea heavily affected by the coasts, and the interior being drier and more continental.
Coastal areas in the southern half of the country, including Antalya, İzmir, Adana, feature a very typical Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Coastal areas in the north are cooler and are either humid temperate or sub-Mediterranean, with cool, frequently rainy and occasionally snowy winters, and warm summers.
The lower plateaus of the interior are generally continental, and feature hot, dry summers, and cold, snowy winters. Winter precipitation varies widely, leading to humid precipitation regimes near areas like Bitlis, while rain-shadowed areas are semi-arid. On higher elevations, plateaus that nevertheless allow permanent settlement, like Kars and Ardahan, are high-continental and sometimes subalpine, with frigid, snowy winters, and mild, rainy summers.
Dry summers in the south and west, along with moderate aridity in the interior makes the country vulnerable to climate change.
Regions
Mediterranean climates
"True" Mediterranean climate
Pine forest, near ancient ruins.
A "true", or rather eu-Mediterranean (Köppen: Csa, Trewartha: Cs) climate exists on sea level from the coasts of Antakya to around Muğla, and north to around Manisa, which is generally considered to be its northern limit.[1] Average temperatures range between 17–20°C (63–68°F); winters have means around 7–10°C (45–50°F), while summers have mean temperatures between 26–29°C (79–84°F). Precipitation amounts to around 600–1,200 millimetres (24–47in), all of it rain. Summers get almost no rain, while winters receive plentiful, and sometimes copious amounts of it. Winter precipitation depends on local topography, with enclosed bays of convergent air,[citation needed] such as Antalya, getting almost twice the amount of rain as storm-protected areas such as Mersin.
Mountains around the region still show the Mediterranean rainfall pattern, but have mild summers and below-freezing temperatures during winter, creating a zone which may be termed oro-Mediterranean.[1]
Climate data for Antalya (1991–2020, extremes 1930–2020)
Drought-tolerant secondary (new-growth) pine woodland, Gaziantep.
A pre-Mediterranean climate (Turkish: Akdeniz sâhil ardı iklimi,[3]Köppen: Csa, Trewartha: Cs/Do/Dc) exists in relatively continental areas influenced by the Mediterranean climatic system, notably around the inner Aegean and Southeastern Anatolia. Average temperatures range between 14–18°C (57–64°F) with winter means around 1–6°C (34–43°F), and summers as hot as (or hotter than) the Mediterranean. Rainfall follows the general pattern of the Mediterranean region, but sunshine is sometimes noticeably lower, and precipitation amounts are lower than the Mediterranean region, between 400–800 millimetres (16–31in). Snow can also fall in this area, unlike the coastal Mediterranean region.
Climate data for Diyarbakır (1991–2020, extremes 1929–2020)
The climate around the Marmara Sea (Turkish: Marmara geçiş iklimi, lit.'Marmara transitional climate',[5]Köppen: Csa/Csb/Cfa/Cfb, Trewartha: Cs/Cf/Do) is complex, transitional and often microclimatic. It wraps around the sea, covering Bursa, Bilecik, southern İzmit and İstanbul, as well as Tekirdağ. Often of a meso- or supra-Mediterranean quality at sea-level; its vegetation at sea level is similar to the lower mountains of the "true" Mediterranean region, with heat-tolerant broadleaf oaks and occasional mesophilous trees, such as beech.[1] Therefore, it is generally considered mild-temperate and not subtropical in Turkish sources and furthermore, Bohn, in a survey of European vegetation and climate, calls the climate sub-continental sub-Mediterranean.[5][6]
Its average temperatures range around 12–15°C (54–59°F) at sea level. Its summers are generally cool for the Mediterranean, but warm for oceanic climates, with means around 20–25°C (68–77°F), varying on a microclimatic level. Winter means range between 2–6°C (36–43°F), with a noticeable decrease further inland. Precipitation amounts to 600–1,100 millimetres (24–43in). Winters are very cloudy, with the amount of rainy days far surpassing much of Europe; while snow falls occasionally, often with sea-effect. Summers are moderately dry, but feature occasional thunderstorms, sometimes severe; along with the Black Sea climatic region further east, areas around the Marmara Sea have their peak thunderstorm activity in early and late summer.[7]
Mountains here often quickly transition into subalpine climates, most notably Uludağ.
Inland regions northwest of the Marmara Sea have a transitional, sub-humid climate (Köppen: Csa/Cfa, Trewartha: Cs/Cf/Do), with average temperatures matching those of the Marmara Sea, albeit with colder, snowier winters and hotter summers. The vegetation here is pre-steppic, mostly oak savanna.[1]
This area does have similarities to the pre-Mediterranean climate further south, but its lower sunshine, light winter precipitation and milder, wetter summers distinguish the two. The area's thunderstorm season peaks in May and early June, resulting in a slightly earlier season than that of the Marmara Sea.[7]
Climate data for Kırklareli (1991–2020, extremes 1959–2020)
Its average temperatures range around 12–14°C (54–57°F) at sea level, with summer means around 20–23°C (68–73°F) and winter means around 4–6°C (39–43°F). Rainfall is well-distributed and quite frequent, generally around 900–1,500 millimetres (35–59in) with a spring drying pattern, instead of a summer-dry one. Winter snowfall is about the same amount as the Marmara region, but winter means are raised by Foehn winds.
Climate data for Zonguldak (1991–2020, extremes 1939–2020)
Temperate and meso-Mediterranean vegetation together, near Samsun.
In sheltered locations around Sinop and Samsun, the climate (Köppen: Cfa, Trewartha: Cf) is noticeably drier and warmer than the Western Pontic zone, but somewhat cooler, and much drier than the Eastern Pontic zone. Meso-Mediterranean vegetation resurfaces here, and coexists with broadleaf forest.[1] Average temperatures range around 13–15°C (55–59°F), with summer means around 22–25°C (72–77°F) and winter means around 6–8°C (43–46°F). Rainfall follows the general distribution of the region, but the area is less humid than expected in all seasons.
Climate data for Sinop (1991–2020, extremes 1936–2020)
As the Black Sea coast assumes a southwest-northeast direction once again, rainfall increases, and forms the near-subtropical, extremely humid climate (Köppen: Cfa, Trewartha: Cf) prevalent in the eastern Black Sea region. Featuring temperate rainforests, its temperatures are very slightly warmer than the transitional zone further west, but rainfall in this region is nearly constant in frequency, varying only by intensity. Rainfall amounts are also quite copious at 1,500–2,500 millimetres (59–98in), with a spring drying pattern. Some parts of the region get below 1,200 hours of sunshine, values far below Western Europe and more comparable to subpolar regions.[14]
Between the humid Pontic climate and semi-arid conditions further inland, a sub-humid to humid continental climate (Turkish: Karadeniz sâhil ardı iklimi, lit.'Pre-Pontic climate',[3]Köppen: Dfb, Trewartha: Dc) exists, most notably near Kastamonu. Average temperatures range around 8–11°C (46–52°F), with means of 18–21°C (64–70°F) during the hottest month and winter means just below the freezing mark. Rainfall is around 500 millimetres (20in), with a spring storm season.
Climate data for Kastamonu (1991–2020, extremes 1930–2020)
In the far-northeast of the country, often in elevations above 1,500 metres (4,900ft), the summerly drying trend is no longer observed, and a unique, high-continental climate (Köppen: Dfb/Dfc, Trewartha: Dc/Ec) forms near Kars and Ardahan. Here, average temperatures are generally just above the freezing mark, while summers average around 15°C (59°F). Winters are the most severe in the country, with lows routinely below −18°C (0°F). Rainfall is generally around 500–700 millimetres (20–28in) with an early-summer wet season.
Climate data for Ardahan (1991–2020, extremes 1958–2020)
On the foothills of the Anti-Taurus and Zagros Mountains, south of the Armenian highlands and, in general, near the continental foothills of the southern Alpide belt in Turkey, an orographically-induced rainbelt forms a Mediterranean-influenced continental climate (Köppen: Dsa/Dsb, Trewartha: Dc), high in precipitation. Temperatures average around 8–12°C (46–54°F) with winter means around −3°C (27°F) and summer temperatures averaging between 21–25°C (70–77°F). Precipitation is heaviest in early-spring, with totals above 800 millimetres (31in). Winters are very snowy. Despite this high precipitation, summer aridity keep the vegetation of the area pre-steppic.[19]
Climate data for Bitlis (1991–2020, extremes 1959–2020)
Iğdır, in which a pocket of semi-arid climate exists outside of the climate's typical range.
In drier areas of Central and Eastern Anatolia, a semi-arid, occasionally sub-humid climate (Köppen: BSk/Dsa, Trewartha: BS/Dc) takes hold, due to extensive rain-shadow ing from all sides. Here, summer means range around 22–25°C (72–77°F), while winter means are around freezing, averaging out to around 10–13°C (50–55°F). Precipitation is scarce at around 300–400 millimetres (12–16in), and heaviest in late-spring.
Climate data for Konya (1991–2020, extremes 1929–2020)
Zonguldak is a city in the Black Sea region of Turkey. It is the seat of Zonguldak Province and Zonguldak District. Its population is 101,749 (2022). It was established in 1849 as a port town for the nearby coal mines in Ereğli and the coal trade remains its main economic activity. According to the 2009 census, Zonguldak has a population of 108,792. The current mayor is Ömer Selim Alan, representing the AKP.
Karabük is a city in the Black Sea region of Turkey. It is the seat of Karabük Province and Karabük District. Its population is 125,403 (2022). The town lies at an elevation of 301 m (988 ft).
Nevşehir Province is a province in central Turkey with its capital in Nevşehir. Its area is 5,485 km2, and its population is 310,011 (2022). Its adjacent provinces are Kırşehir to the northwest, Aksaray to the southwest, Niğde to the south, Kayseri to the southeast, and Yozgat to the northeast. Nevşehir includes the area called Cappadocia - a tourist attraction in Turkey. The town of Göreme is also located in Nevşehir.
Çankırı, historically known as Gangra, is a city in Turkey, about 140 km (87 mi) northeast of Ankara. It is situated about 800 m (2500 ft) above sea level. It is the seat of Çankırı Province and of Çankırı District. Its population is 90,564 (2021).
Rize is a coastal city in the eastern part of the Black Sea Region of Turkey. It is the seat of Rize Province and Rize District. Its population is 119,828 (2021). Rize is a typical Turkish provincial capital with little in the way of nightlife or entertainment. Since the border with Georgia was opened in the early 1990s, the Black Sea coast road has been widened and the town is much wealthier than it used to be. Current Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan's family has its roots in Rize and the local university is named after him. The city is linked by road with Trabzon, Hopa (55 miles [88 km] east on the Georgian border, and Erzurum. Rize–Artvin Airport started operating in 2022.
Adapazarı is a municipality and the capital district of Sakarya Province, Turkey. Its area is 324 km2, and its population is 281,489 (2022). It covers the central and northern part of the agglomeration of Adapazarı and the adjacent countryside.
Giresun, formerly Cerasus, is a city in the Black Sea Region of northeastern Turkey, about 175 km (109 mi) west of the city of Trabzon. It is the seat of Giresun Province and Giresun District. It has a population of 125,682 (2022).
Uşak is a city in the interior part of the Aegean Region of Turkey. It is the seat of Uşak Province and Uşak District. Its population is 236,366 (2022).
Hakkâri, formerly known as Julamerk, is a city and the seat of Hakkâri District in the Hakkâri Province of Turkey. The city is populated by Kurds and had a population of 58,470 in 2023.
Adıyaman is a city in southeastern Turkey. It is the administrative centre of Adıyaman Province and Adıyaman District. Its population is 267,131 (2021). The inhabitants of the city are mostly Kurdish.
Ağrı is a city in eastern Turkey, near the border with Iran. It is the seat of Ağrı Province and Ağrı District. Its population is 120,390 (2021). Formerly known as Karaköse from the early Turkish republican period until 1946, and before that as Karakilise, the city is now named after Ağrı, the Turkish name of Mount Ararat.
Düzce is a city in northwestern Turkey, the capital city of Düzce Province, the eighty-first province in the country. It is the seat of Düzce District. Its population is 194,097.
Kırıkkale is a city in the Central Anatolia region of Turkey. It is the seat of Kırıkkale Province and Kırıkkale District. Its population is 186,960 (2022). It is located 80 km east of Ankara which is the capital city of Turkey. The name of the city means broken castle.
Şırnak is a city in Şırnak District and the capital of Şırnak Province in Turkey. The Ibrahim Khalil border crossing with Iraq is one of the main links of Turkey to Kurdistan Region in Iraq.
Bartın is a city in northern Turkey, near the Black Sea. It is the seat of Bartın Province and Bartın District. Its population is 81,692 (2021).
Bilecik is a city in northwestern Anatolia, Turkey. It is the seat of Bilecik Province and Bilecik District. Its population is 74,457 (2021). The mayor is Melek Mızrak Subaşı (CHP).
Osmaniye is a city on the eastern edge of the Çukurova plain in southern Turkey. It is the seat of Osmaniye Province and Osmaniye District. Its population is 252,186 (2022).
Yalova is a market-gardening town located in northwestern Turkey on the eastern coast of the Sea of Marmara. It is the seat of Yalova Province and Yalova District. Its population is 133,109 (2022). A largely modern town, it is best known for the spa resort at nearby Termal, a popular summer retreat for residents of Istanbul.
A humid subtropical climate is a temperate climate type characterized by hot and humid summers, and cool to mild winters. These climates normally lie on the southeast side of all continents, generally between latitudes 25° and 40° and are located poleward from adjacent tropical climates, and equatorward from either humid continental or oceanic climates. It is also known as warm temperate climate in some climate classifications.
The climate of Istanbul, classified variously as Mediterranean, oceanic, or a transitional climate between the two, is temperate; with cool, frequently rainy, somewhat snowy winters, and warm to hot, moderately dry summers. Strongly influenced by the Sea of Marmara to the south and the Black Sea to the north, it is thoroughly maritime; precipitation is moderately high, fog is frequent, and seasonal lag is noticeable both in winter and in summer. The city is sheltered from both extreme heat and frigid temperatures, with temperatures rarely reaching 33 °C (91 °F) or dipping below −6 °C (21 °F), and is quite windy year-round.
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