Technical textile

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Water droplet on the surface of DWR-coated fabric Surface A water droplet DWR-coated surface2 edit1.jpg
Water droplet on the surface of DWR-coated fabric Surface

"Technical textile" refers to a category of textiles specifically engineered and manufactured to serve functional purposes beyond traditional apparel and home furnishing applications. These textiles are designed with specific performance characteristics and properties, making them suitable for various industrial, medical, automotive, aerospace, and other technical applications. Unlike conventional textiles used for clothing or decoration, technical textiles are optimized to offer qualities such as strength, durability, flame resistance, chemical resistance, moisture management, and other specialized functionalities to meet the specific needs of diverse industries and sectors.

Contents

Overview

A technical textile is a textile product manufactured for non-aesthetic purposes, where function is the primary criterion. [1] Technical textiles include textiles for automotive applications, medical textiles (e.g., implants), geotextiles (reinforcement of embankments), agrotextiles (textiles for crop protection), and protective clothing (e.g., heat and radiation protection for fire fighter clothing, molten metal protection for welders, stab protection and bulletproof vests, and spacesuits). [2]

The sector is large, growing, and supports a vast array of other industries. [3] The global growth rate of technical textiles is about 4% per year. [4] Currently, technical textile materials are most widely used in filter clothing, furniture, hygiene medicals and construction material. [5]

Classification

Technical textiles can be divided into many categories, depending on their end use. The classification system developed by Techtextil, Messe Frankfurt Exhibition GmbH, is widely used in Europe, North America and Asia [6] Techtextil specifies 12 application areas: Agrotech, Buildtech, Clothtech, Geotech, Hometech, Indutech, Medtech, Mobiltech, Oekotech, Packtech, Protech, and Sporttech, Architech (Architectural textile), Military textiles, Autotech (Automobile textiles), Smartech (Smart Textiles), Wearable computers, . [2] These are sometimes spelled Agrotex, Buildtex, Clothtex, Geotex, Hometex, Indutex, Medtex, Mobiltex, Oekotex (Ecotex), Packtex, Protex and Sportex [7]

Agrotech (agro-textiles)

Agro-textiles applied for the agrotech sector, with approach crop protection and crop development and reducing the risks of farming practices. Primarily agro-textiles offer weather resistance and resistance to microorganisms and protection from unwanted elements and external factors. Agro-textiles helps to improve the overall conditions with which crop can develop and be protected. There are the various textile products, fabrics forms, fibers and techniques used in agro-textiles which are useful for agriculture mainly for crop protection and in crop development for instance shade nets, thermal insulation and sunscreen materials, windshield, antibird nets, which provide minimal shading and proper temperature, air circulation for protecting plants from direct sunlight and birds. Agrotextiles involves mulch mats, hail protection nets, and crop covers, etc. Agro-textiles are useful in Horticulture, aquaculture, landscape gardening and forestry also. More examples of use and application are covering livestock protection, suppressing weed and insect control, etc. [8] [9]

Buildtech (construction textiles)

Construction textiles are used in: construction concrete reinforcement, façade foundation systems, interior construction, insulations, proofing materials, air conditioning, noise prevention, visual protection, protection against the sun, and building safety. [10]

Another application is the use of textile membranes for roof construction. This area is also referred to as textile architecture. PVC-coated high-tensile polyester (PES), teflon-coated glass fibre fabrics, or silicone-coated PES are used for their low creep properties. Examples of such construction are found in football stadiums, airports, and hotels.

Clothtech (clothing textiles)

Technical textiles for clothing applications. [11] It is a segment of technical textiles comprises all textile components used primarily in clothing and footwear. Clothtech encompasses the functional parts that may not be visible, such as zippers, labels, sewing threads, elastics, insulating fiber fills, waddings, shoelaces, and drawcords velcro, and interlining cloths, etc. Sewing threads is the major component that accounts around 60% followed by labels 19%, interlinings 8%, shoelaces and zip fasteners 5%, Velcro and umbrella 2%.

Clothtech is a significant division of the technical textile sector, contributing 7% to the overall technical textile industry. [12]

Geotech (geotextiles)

These are used in reinforcement of embankments or in construction work. [13] The fabrics in geo textiles are permeable fabrics and are used with the soils having ability to separate, filter, protect or drain. The application areas include civil engineering, earth and road construction, dam engineering, soil sealing and in drainage systems. The fabric used in it must have good strength, durability, low moisture absorption and thickness. Mostly nonwoven and woven fabrics are used in it. Synthetic fibers like glass, polypropylene and acrylic fibers are used to prevent cracking of the concrete, plastic and other building materials. Polypropylene and polyester are used in geo textiles and dry/liquid filtration due to their compatibility. [14] [15]

Hometech (domestic textiles)

Textiles used in a domestic environment - interior decoration and furniture, carpeting, protection against the sun, cushion materials, fireproofing, pillows, floor and wall coverings, textile reinforced structures/fittings. [16]

In the contract market such as for large area buildings, ships, caravans, busses, fire retardant materials are used. Fire-retardant properties are obtained either through the use of inherent fire retardant fibres such as modacrylic or through the application of a coating with fire retardant additives (bromide of phosphorus compounds).

Indutech (industrial textiles)

Textiles used for chemical and electrical applications and textiles related to mechanical engineering. Silk-screen printing, filtration, plasma screens, propulsion technology, lifting/conveying equipment, sound-proofing elements, melting processes, roller covers, grinding technology, insulations, seals, fuel cell. [17]

Lifting textiles

Technical textiles for lifting applications. Used in process of lifting heavy goods. The textile produced is strongly woven with High tenacity yarns and the fabric is treated with heat and high temperature controlling its elongations. This is usually made of High tenacity polyester and Nylon however HMPE yarns as Dyneema are also used.

Medtech (medical textiles)

A disposable glove made of nitrile rubber. These gloves are often used during medical examinations and procedures to reduce the risk of cross-contamination and germ dissemination. Disposable nitrile glove.jpg
A disposable glove made of nitrile rubber. These gloves are often used during medical examinations and procedures to reduce the risk of cross-contamination and germ dissemination.

Medical textiles are the textile materials such as fibers, yarns and fabrics that supports medtech (area of application) with healthcare, hygiene, infection control, barrier materials, polymeric Implants, medical devices and smart technologies. The medical textiles helps with variety of products in handling medical practices and procedures such as treating an injury and dealing with a medical environment or situation. [8] Medical textiles also includes fibers for growing human organic tissues. [18]

Medical textiles offer laminated and coated materials for various gowns for better protection from infections, fluids such as PPE gowns for doctors, nurses, hospital staff and gowns worn by healthcare personnel as personal protective equipment, patient gowns and surgical and isolation gowns. [18] The technical textiles for medical use also help in providing facemasks , FFP2 facial mask, surgical clothing and drapes, disposable nitrile gloves, goggles or visors, head caps, long shoe covers hoods, various wound care assistance such as bandages and dressings, and compression garments, etc. Medical textiles integrated with smart technologies provide remote contact between doctor and a user. [19] [18]

In the United States, medical gowns are medical devices regulated by the FDA. Surgical isolation gowns are regulated by the FDA as a Class II medical device that require a 510(k) premarket notification, but non-surgical gowns are Class I devices exempt from premarket review. Surgical gowns only require protection of the front of the body due to the controlled nature of surgical procedures, while surgical isolation gowns and non-surgical gowns require protection over nearly the entire gown. [20] During the Ebola crisis of 2014, the WHO published a rapid advice guideline on PPE coveralls. [21]

Mobiltech (textiles used in transport; automotive and aerospace)

Mobiltech textiles are used in the engineering and design of automobiles, railways, ships, aircraft and spacecraft. Examples are Truck covers (PVC coated PES fabrics), car trunk coverings (often needle felts), lashing belts for cargo tie downs, seat covers (knitted materials), perforated leather steering wheels (breathable leather), seat belts, nonwovens for cabin air filtration (also covered in indutech), airbags, parachutes, boats (inflatable), air balloons.

Many coated and reinforced textiles are used in materials for engines such as air ducts, timing belts, air filters, non-wovens for engine sound isolation. A number of materials are also used in the interior of cars. The most obvious are seat covers, safety belts and airbags but one can find textiles also for the sealing. Nylon gives strength and its bursting strength being high is used as air bags in cars.

Carbon composites are mostly used in the manufacture of aeroplane parts while carbon fibre is used for making higher end tyres. High tensile polyester is used for making air balloons. [22] [23]

Oekotech or ecotech (ecological protection textile)

New applications for textiles in environmental protection applications - floor sealing, erosion protection, air cleaning, prevention of water pollution, water cleaning, waste treatment/recycling, depositing area construction, product extraction, domestic water sewerage plants. [23]

Packtech (packaging textiles)

Packaging textiles are the materials such as fibers, yarns, fabrics, and polymers contribute to manufacture various packaging, silos, containers, bags, lashing straps, canvas covers, marquee tents. [24] [25]

Protech (protective textiles)

DEA agents wearing Level B hazmat suits (also called hazardous materials suit). The suit is a piece of PPE that consists of an impermeable whole-body garment worn as protection against hazardous materials. Hazmat DEA.jpg
DEA agents wearing Level B hazmat suits (also called hazardous materials suit). The suit is a piece of PPE that consists of an impermeable whole-body garment worn as protection against hazardous materials.

The main target of the technical protective fabrics is to improve people safety in their workplaces. A technical protective fabric can save a worker's life, that's why, most of them are mainly used to manufacture PPE (personal protective equipment). The demand of these fabrics is growing around the world thank to the sensibilitization of the society, requiring more safety at work. There are some organizations around the world (ASTM and ISO) which describe the requirements and regulations, to fulfill by a fabric, to be considered as a technical protective fabric. The aim of a technical protective fabric isn't fashion, they are designed to have extra values in protection, against some hazards. [26] [25]

Nowadays it can be found in the market, technical fabrics which protect of:

These fabrics are made of different kind of fibers, because every blend apports different technical characteristics to the fabric:

Sportech (sports textiles)

Shoes, sports equipment, flying and sailing sports, climbing, angling, cycling, winter and summer sports, indoor sport it can vary from anything including sports bags. [27]

Performance

In the context of apparel, "performance" refers to its capacity to enable unhindered movement and effortless maintenance, ensure comfort in all circumstances, and potentially enhance performance during aerobic and sporting activities, all while retaining the appearance. [28]

Some other areas of application

Conveyor belts

For industrial applications and in power transmission, technical textiles are used in conveyor belts. [29] The reinforcement usually found on the inside of the conveyor belt is normally referred to as the ''carcass'' that is a fabric inside the conveyor belt, which is responsible for the strength and stretch properties of the belt. This carcass is made with layers of woven fabrics bonded together. [30]

Electronics in textiles

Textiles merged with electronics enables technology for a variety of applications in health care, rehabilitation or sports. [31] Wearable computers have larger roles and contextual capabilities such as sensing, adaptation, resource discovery, and augmentation. [32]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Textile</span> Various fiber-based materials

Textile is an umbrella term that includes various fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, filaments, threads, different fabric types, etc. At first, the word "textiles" only referred to woven fabrics. However, weaving is not the only manufacturing method, and many other methods were later developed to form textile structures based on their intended use. Knitting and non-woven are other popular types of fabric manufacturing. In the contemporary world, textiles satisfy the material needs for versatile applications, from simple daily clothing to bulletproof jackets, spacesuits, and doctor's gowns.

Twaron is a para-aramid, high-performance yarn. It is a heat-resistant fibre, helps in ballistic protection and cut protection. Twaron was developed in the early 1970s by the Dutch company Akzo Nobel's division Enka BV, later Akzo Industrial Fibers. The research name of the para-aramid fibre was originally Fiber X, but it was soon called Arenka. Although the Dutch para-aramid fiber was developed only a little later than DuPont's Kevlar, the introduction of Twaron as a commercial product came much later than Kevlar due to financial problems at the Akzo company in the 1970s. As of 2000, Twaron had become a global material and had been integrated into the global markets. Twaron has been around for over 30years.

A modacrylic is a synthetic copolymer. Modacrylics are soft, strong, resilient and dimensionally stable. They can be easily dyed, show good press and shape retention, and are quick to dry. They have outstanding resistance to chemicals and solvents, are not attacked by moths or mildew, and are nonallergenic. Among their uses are in apparel linings, furlike outerwear, paint-roller covers, scatter rugs, carpets, and work clothing and as hair in wigs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dyeing</span> Process of adding color to textile products

Dyeing is the application of dyes or pigments on textile materials such as fibers, yarns, and fabrics with the goal of achieving color with desired color fastness. Dyeing is normally done in a special solution containing dyes and particular chemical material. Dye molecules are fixed to the fiber by absorption, diffusion, or bonding with temperature and time being key controlling factors. The bond between the dye molecule and fiber may be strong or weak, depending on the dye used. Dyeing and printing are different applications; in printing, color is applied to a localized area with desired patterns. In dyeing, it is applied to the entire textile.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nonwoven fabric</span> Sheet of fibers

Nonwoven fabric or non-woven fabric is a fabric-like material made from staple fibre (short) and long fibres, bonded together by chemical, mechanical, heat or solvent treatment. The term is used in the textile manufacturing industry to denote fabrics, such as felt, which are neither woven nor knitted. Some non-woven materials lack sufficient strength unless densified or reinforced by a backing. In recent years, non-wovens have become an alternative to polyurethane foam.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcantara (material)</span> Suede-like synthetic textile

Alcantara is the brand name of a synthetic textile with a soft, suede-like microfibre pile, noted for its durability. Alcantara was developed in the 1970s by Miyoshi Okamoto and initially manufactured by the Italian company Alcantara. The term has an Arabic root and means "the bridge".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bolt (cloth)</span> Roll of fabric

A bolt is a piece of cloth woven on a loom or created by a knitting machine, as it is processed, stored and/or marketed. Consequently, its dimensions are highly variable – flexible and dependent upon the manufacturing, machinery, quantity, size, thickness and quality of the product. It is a unit used in manufacturing, transport and inventory. It is also used as a descriptor for wallpaper, which uses different fabrication machinery. Being encompassing, it is by its nature a generic and ambiguous term of convenience and context, used to describe fabric and wallpaper.

Hydroentanglement is a bonding process for wet or dry fibrous webs made by either carding, airlaying or wet-laying, the resulting bonded fabric being a nonwoven. It uses fine, high pressure jets of water which penetrate the web, hit the conveyor belt and bounce back causing the fibres to entangle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agricultural technology</span> Use of technology in agriculture

Agricultural technology or agrotechnology is the use of technology in agriculture, horticulture, and aquaculture with the aim of improving yield, efficiency, and profitability. Agricultural technology can be products, services or applications derived from agriculture that improve various input and output processes.

Confil is a wet-laid nonwoven fabric made from a blend of polyester and cellulose. The International Paper Company acquired the manufacturing process from Feldmühle in 1968, and marketed Confil as a disposable fabric for domestic and hospital use. Although the product was too late to market to take advantage of the 1960s paper clothing fad, International Paper promoted it for general clothing use, positioning the product as superior to paper in feel and durability, but cheap enough to throw away. Despite limited adoption in the fashion industry, demand justified construction of a $16 million factory in Lewisburg, Pennsylvania to increase production volumes. As the price of cotton more than doubled during the 1970s, Confil found use in other specialty applications such as wallpaper, construction fabrics, and geotextiles. In the early 21st century, Confil is largely used in filtration media.

Clothtech is a segment of technical textiles that includes all textile components used primarily in clothing and footwear. Clothtech adds functional properties to the product that improve specific and critical objectives. Clothtech encompasses the functional parts that may not be visible, such as zippers, labels, sewing threads, elastics, insulating fiber fills, waddings, shoelaces, and drawcords velcro, and interlining cloths, etc. Sewing threads is the major component that accounts around 60% of the technical textiles under clothtech followed by labels 19%, interlinings 8%, shoelaces and zip fasteners 5%, Velcro and umbrella 2%.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Textile performance</span> Fitness for purpose of textiles

Textile performance, also known as fitness for purpose, is a textile's capacity to withstand various conditions, environments, and hazards, qualifying it for particular uses. The performance of textile products influences their appearance, comfort, durability, and protection. Different textile applications require a different set of performance parameters. As a result, the specifications determine the level of performance of a textile product. Textile testing certifies the product's conformity to buying specification. It describes product manufactured for non-aesthetic purposes, where fitness for purpose is the primary criterion. Engineering of high-performance fabrics presents a unique set of challenges.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Automotive textile</span> Textiles used in a variety of applications in the automotive industry

An Automotive textile is a technical textile used in the transportation and automotive industries. The choice of type of automotive textile focuses on aspects of safety, comfort, and aesthetics. These textiles have variety of applications in the automotive industry, such as interior fittings, safety features, sound insulation, and tire reinforcement.

Indutech is the branch of technical textile that deals with textiles used in the diverse industrial applications such as in filtration, conveying, cleaning and other industrial uses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">3D textiles</span> Three-dimensional fibers, yarns and fabrics

3D textiles are three-dimensional structures made with different manufacturing methods such as weaving, knitting, braiding, or nonwoven, or made with alternative technologies. 3D textiles are produced with three planar geometry, opposed to 2D textiles that are made on two planes. The weave in 2D textiles is perpendicular. The yarn is fed along two axis: length (x-axis) and width (y-axis), while 3D textiles also have a perpendicular weave, but they have an extra yarn with an angular feeding (z-axis) which creates thickness. 3D weaves are orthogonal weave structures, multilayer structures, and angle interlocks. 3D textiles have more manufacturing opportunities, various properties, and a broader scope of applications. These textiles have a wide range of applications, but they are most commonly used where performance is the primary criterion, such as technical textiles. Composite materials, manufacturing is one of the significant areas of using 3D textiles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chemical finishing of textiles</span> Chemical finishing methods that may alter the chemical properties of the treated fabrics

Chemical finishing of textiles refers to the process of applying and treating textiles with a variety of chemicals in order to achieve desired functional and aesthetic properties. Chemical finishing of textiles is a part of the textile finishing process where the emphasis is on chemical substances instead of mechanical finishing. Chemical finishing in textiles also known as wet finishing. Chemical finishing adds properties to the treated textiles. Softening of textiles, durable water repellancy and wrinkle free fabric finishes are examples of chemical finishing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coated fabrics</span> Fabrics that go through a process of coating

Coated fabrics are those that have undergone a coating procedure to become more functional and hold the added properties, such as cotton fabrics becoming impermeable or waterproof. Coated textiles are used in a variety of applications, including blackout curtains and the development of waterproof fabrics for raincoats.

A blend is a mixture of two or more fibers. In yarn spinning, different compositions, lengths, diameters, or colors may be combined to create a blend. Blended textiles are fabrics or yarns produced with a combination of two or more types of different fibers, or yarns to obtain desired traits and aesthetics. Blending is possible at various stages of textile manufacturing. The term, blend, refers to spun fibers or a fabric composed of such fibers. There are several synonymous terms: a combination yarn is made up of two strands of different fibers twisted together to form a ply; a mixture or mixed cloth refers to blended cloths in which different types of yarns are used in warp and weft sides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Medical textiles</span> Textiles for medical and healthcare use

Medical textiles are numerous fiber-based materials intended for medical purposes. Medical textile is a sector of technical textiles that emphasizes fiber-based products used in health care applications such as prevention, care, and hygiene. A medical textile is a piece of fabric used in the healthcare industry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Textile testing</span> Process of measuring the properties and performance of textiles

Textile testing is the process of measuring the properties and performance of textile materials—textile testing includes physical and chemical testing of raw materials to finished products.

References

  1. ↑ Tortora, Phyllis G.; Merkel, Robert S. (1996-01-10). Fairchild's Dictionary of Textiles (7th ed.). New York: Fairchild Publications. p. 567. ISBN   9780870057076.
  2. 1 2 Techtextil: Application areas. Techtextil, Frankfurt: Trade fair for Technical Textiles and Nonwovens (consulted 28 March 2015)
  3. ↑ Anderson, Donald L (2016). Cases and Exercises in Organization Development & Change. SAGE Publications. p. 155. ISBN   9781506365794.
  4. ↑ Subhash C. Anand, A. Richard Horrocks (2015). Handbook of Technical Textiles: Technical Textile Processes 2nd Edition. Woodhead Publishing. p. 13. ISBN   9781782424581.
  5. ↑ Shukla, Ashutosh Kumar (2020). Nanoparticles and their Biomedical Applications. Springer Singapore. p. 129. ISBN   9789811503917.
  6. ↑ Annapoorani, Grace S. (2018). Agro Textiles and Its Applications. Woodhead Publishing. p. 3. ISBN   9789385059896.
  7. ↑ Resisto Protection Textil GmbH visited 21 August 2008 Archived 15 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  8. 1 2 Subhash C. Anand, A. Richard Horrocks (2000). Handbook of Technical Textiles. Woodhead Publishing. p. 3. ISBN   9781855733855.
  9. ↑ Paul, Roshan (2019). High Performance Technical Textiles. Wiley. pp. 9–41. ISBN   9781119325017.
  10. ↑ Annapoorani, Grace S. (2018). Agro Textiles and Its Applications. Woodhead Publishing. p. 4. ISBN   9789385059896.
  11. ↑ Annapoorani, Grace S. (2018). Agro Textiles and Its Applications. Woodhead Publishing. p. 5. ISBN   9789385059896.
  12. ↑ Textiles, Expert Committee on Technical (2004). Report of the Expert Committee on Technical Textiles. Government of India, Ministry of Textiles. p. 76.
  13. ↑ "Centre looks to promote use of geo-textiles in rural roads". The Economic Times. 26 August 2015.
  14. ↑ Annapoorani, Grace S. (2018). Agro Textiles and Its Applications. Woodhead Publishing. p. 6. ISBN   9789385059896.
  15. ↑ Müller, Werner W; Saathoff, Fokke (2015-05-08). "Geosynthetics in geoenvironmental engineering". Science and Technology of Advanced Materials. 16 (3): 034605. doi:10.1088/1468-6996/16/3/034605. ISSN   1468-6996. PMC   5099829 . PMID   27877792.
  16. ↑ Annapoorani, Grace S. (2018). Agro Textiles and Its Applications. Woodhead Publishing. p. 7. ISBN   9789385059896.
  17. ↑ Annapoorani, Grace S. (2018). Agro Textiles and Its Applications. Woodhead Publishing. p. 8. ISBN   9789385059896.
  18. 1 2 3 Bartels, V.T. (2011). Handbook of Medical Textiles. Woodhead Publishing. pp. 22, 49, 89, 122, 132, 133, 149, 150, 176, 187, 349, 368. ISBN   9781845696917.
  19. ↑ M Miraftab, S. Rajendran (2005). Medical Textiles and Biomaterials for Healthcare. Elsevier Science. ISBN   9781845694104.
  20. ↑ "Medical Gowns". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2020-03-11. Retrieved 2020-05-06.
  21. ↑ "Personal protective equipment for Ebola outbreak" (PDF). WHO. 31 October 2014.
  22. ↑ Subhash C. Anand, A. Richard Horrocks (2000). Handbook of Technical Textiles. Elsevier Science. p. 12. ISBN   9781855738966.
  23. 1 2 Annapoorani, Grace S. (2018). Agro Textiles and Its Applications. Woodhead Publishing. p. 9. ISBN   9789385059896.
  24. ↑ Paul, Roshan (2019). High Performance Technical Textiles. Wiley. p. 25. ISBN   9781119325017.
  25. 1 2 Annapoorani, Grace S. (2018). Agro Textiles and Its Applications. Woodhead Publishing. p. 10. ISBN   9789385059896.
  26. ↑ Scott, Richard A. (2005). Textiles for Protection. Woodhead Publishing. pp. 699, 700. ISBN   9781855739215.
  27. ↑ Annapoorani, Grace S. (2018). Agro Textiles and Its Applications. Woodhead Publishing. p. 11. ISBN   9789385059896.
  28. ↑ SGMA sport apparel dictionary of performance fibers, fabrics and finishes. North Palm Beach, FL: Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association. 1997. p. 12. ISBN   978-0-9660699-0-7.
  29. ↑ Kumar, R. Senthil (2013). Textiles for Industrial Applications. CRC Press. pp. 324–327, 12, 196. ISBN   9781466566491.
  30. ↑ Bulk Solids Handling: The International Journal of Storing and Handling Bulk Materials vol 22. The University of Michigan: Trans tech Publications. 2002. p. 43.
  31. ↑ Zysset, Christoph; Kinkeldei, Thomas; Münzenrieder, Niko; Petti, Luisa; Salvatore, Giovanni; Tröster, Gerhard (2013-07-01). "Combining electronics on flexible plastic strips with textiles". Textile Research Journal. 83 (11): 1130–1142. doi:10.1177/0040517512468813. ISSN   0040-5175. S2CID   136997349.
  32. ↑ Pascoe, J. (October 1998). "Adding generic contextual capabilities to wearable computers". Digest of Papers. Second International Symposium on Wearable Computers (Cat. No.98EX215) (PDF). pp. 92–99. doi:10.1109/ISWC.1998.729534. ISBN   0-8186-9074-7. S2CID   3038475.
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