Climate change in Iran

Last updated
Lake Urmia has shrunk due to reduced inflow in recent decades. This is attributable to climate change, and contributes to water scarcity in Iran. Urmia lake drought.gif
Lake Urmia has shrunk due to reduced inflow in recent decades. This is attributable to climate change, and contributes to water scarcity in Iran.

Iran is among the most vulnerable countries to climate change in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Iran contributes to about 1.8% of global greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), and is ranked 8th in greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) world wide and is ranked first in the MENA region due to its reliance on oil and natural gas. Climate change has led to reduced precipitation as well as increased temperatures, with Iran holding the hottest temperature recorded in Asia. [2]

Contents

The country is facing water shortages with around 35% of Iranians experiencing water scarcity. These issues are exacerbated by rapid urbanization which has led to worsened air quality and heat islands. [3] Iran is one of only three countries not to ratify the Paris Agreement. [4] [note 1]

Iran's regional climates vary from the hot, arid deserts in the south and east to cooler, milder conditions along the Caspian Sea in the north, and temperate climates in the western-south Zagros Basin and southern coastal areas. This diversity contributes to a range of natural hazards, including floods, landslides, and droughts. [6]

Emissions

CO2 emissions by sector, 2021 [7]

  Electricity and heat producers (25.81%)
  Industry (18.90%)
  Transport (20.88%)
  Residential (21.23%)
  Commercial and public services (2.87%)
  Agriculture (2.38%)
  Other energy industries (7.91%)

Iran is a significant contributor of GHGs due to its use and production of oil and natural gas. These resources not only serve the domestic energy needs but also serve as a significant portion of the country's exports. [8] As Iran has not ratified the Paris Agreement it does not publish GHG emission figures and has not pledged any reduction, [9] but 2022 emissions are estimated at 950 million tonnes CO2eq, which is almost 1.8% of global emissions. [10] Regarding the population of Iran, per person in Iran emits more than the global average.

Additionally, gas flaring activities in Iran contribute to its emissions profile, with the equivalent of around 50 million metric tons of carbon dioxide being emitted annually from gas flaring alone, accounting for 5.5%-6% of the country's total GHG emissions. [11] The emission figures also show the low levels of country's investment in renewable energy. Although Iran has considerable renewable energy potential, the transition towards clean energy systems has been a slow process. [12] Fossil fuel subsidies are second only to Russia, and the world’s largest by share of GDP. [13]

Iran is not currently one of the top 10 countries at risk of climate disaster. However, climate change made it 16 more times likely for drought to happen in Iran. Iran has already faced several deadly floods. Iranian environmentalists and academics warn people the government is falling behind on climate adaptation, which is likely to increase vulnerability. [14] Iran is ranked 66th, which is second to last in this year’s CCPI.

Impacts on the environment

Temperature change in Iran over time Temperature Bar Chart Middle East-Iran--1901-2020--2021-07-13.png
Temperature change in Iran over time

There are several potential impacts of climate change in Iran. For one, it is expected that the average temperature will increase significantly, estimated at a 2.6 degree Celsius change by 2050. [14] This could climb up to a 5 degree Celsius increase by the end of the century. [6] Increased average temperature is directly related to increases in heat deaths and heart-disease related deaths. [15] In addition, heat wave frequency is predicted to increase by roughly 30%, which would also cause an estimated 30% decrease in precipitation. [16] ..

Water resources

Changes in precipitation are likely to cause water shortages in Iran, which poses threats to the supply of clean drinking water as well as irrigation water used for agriculture. Paired with rising temperatures, decreased availability of irrigation water would lead to significantly lower agricultural production, causing food shortages. While annual precipitation is likely to decrease, the intensity and concentration of rainy days are expected to increase in the south, which can lead to flooding. [17] Iran already has extremely high exposure to floods, landslides, and other natural disasters, ranking sixth in the world in natural-hazard vulnerability. [18]

Sea level rise

Makran Coast Makran beaches 20190622 14.jpg
Makran Coast

The southeast coast of Iran, Makran, is of great economic and environmental importance. Regarding sea level rise vulnerability based on geomorphological, environmental and socioeconomic factors, a study found that low lying coasts in Makran would particularly be vulnerable. [19] Makran coast is more vulnerable to natural hazards because of its high rates of tectonic uplifts. [20] In addition to putting it at greater risk of sea level rise, this can trigger extreme events such as earthquakes and tsunamis. [20]

Ecosystem impacts

Desertification is one of the main concerns for Iran as temperatures continue to rise. Government officials have recognized that over 100 million hectares of land in the country could turn to desert in the near future due to impacts of climate change. [21] This could lead to a mass migration for an already rapidly urbanizing Iranian population. In Tehran alone, the population is increasing at roughly 2% a year currently. [22] These affects are already starting to be seen, as it was estimated that roughly 41,000 people migrated in Iran due to natural hazards. [22] Desertification also comes with multiple serious health and economic risks related to dust storms and defertilization of land. [21]

Water availability is another major climate change concern for Iran in the near future. Much of the available groundwater has already been used in the country due to increased water demand in the recent past. [21] Much of this has been caused by increased well digging. The number of water wells in the country increased by 21 times from the 1980s to the 2010s. [21] In addition, water efficiency in the public sector seems to be another issue, with water waste amounting to almost 30%. [21] Because of this, the impacts of decreased precipitation in Iran provide even harsher ramifications than in other countries in the region, which already struggle with water allocation and efficiency.

Koppen-Geiger Map IRN present.svg
Koppen-Geiger Map IRN future.svg
Present (left) and predicted future (right) Köppen climate classification maps of Iran

Impact on agriculture

The impacts of climate change on agriculture in Iran are already clear to see. Since 2002, the percentage of total GDP that comes from the agricultural sector has declined by over 9%. [23] Currently, wheat is the main crop grown in Iran, as it makes up around 67% of all crop production. [24] While current yields tend to be relatively stable, simulations done on the Mazandaran, Khuzestan, and Eastern Azerbaijan regions show how increasing temperatures and decreased precipitation could reduce output. These three provinces account for roughly 20% of Iran's wheat production, but all have starkly different geological and climatic features. [25] The simulations showed that the warmer Mazandaran and Khuzestan regions were particularly susceptible to climate change, with decreasing yields of 7-45% and 7-54% respectively. [25] The colder Eastern Azerbaijan province was the only one to potentially increase yields due to impending climate change (0-16%).

Another concern regarding agriculture in Iran is the efficiency of water usage. The impacts of decreased water availability could be crucial for this sector, which currently accounts for roughly 90% of water usage. [23] This has already proved to be a problem historically, when droughts in the late 90s caused major agricultural losses amounting to over $10 billion. [26] With studies predicting a potential 35% decrease in annual precipitation, the supply of water available for agriculture could shrink significantly. [27] This is especially problematic because of the lack of water productivity in the agricultural sector, which currently is around 33%. [23]

Impact on the economy

Iran's economy has faced stagnating growth since the 1970s. [28] Much of this is due to sanctions placed on the country in 1995. While trade restrictions have impacted Iran's ability to import and export natural resources that could help mitigate the effects of climate change, the current government is using the Paris Climate Agreement as a leveraging tool to remove sanctions. [29] Beyond trade, the economy faces major economic threats due to increased temperatures, with an estimated 1-23% GDP loss in the event of 3-4 degree celsius warming. [28] In addition, it is estimated that there would be a significant decline on workforce productivity and an increase in workforce deaths. [30]

Mitigation

Iran is one of only three countries not to have ratified the Paris Agreement. ParisAgreement.svg
Iran is one of only three countries not to have ratified the Paris Agreement.

Iran’s mitigation efforts have been slow to come. CO2 levels continue to rise annually at an increasing rate for both consumption and production. [31] Total per capita greenhouse gas emissions have also increased and show no sign of stopping. [31] Mitigation options exist for both energy and non-energy sectors. The energy sector has the largest potential for mitigation, followed by industrial processes and product use, waste, agriculture and forestry. [32] One potential way forward for Iran with mitigation efforts is the use of biofuel. Iranian researchers had already produced biodiesel from flixweed as a source or renewable energy. [33] There is already a biodiesel production facility in central Iran. [34] While this is a more sustainable source than oil, there are still some downsides. For example, processing of biofuels is very water intensive. [35] With decreased precipitation likely in the region, it will be difficult to meet demands. The main reason mitigation efforts have been slow in Iran is the impact of economic sanctions on the country and their reliance on natural gas and oil for revenues. [36] Moreover, at COP26, Iranian delegate Ali Salajegheh said the country would only ratify the Paris Agreement if sanctions against Iran were lifted. [37]

Adaptation

Qanat cross section Qanat cross section.svg
Qanat cross section

Qanats, a traditional form of water management in Iran, that are being used to adapt both rural and urban areas to better cope with the affects of climate change.The qanats, designed to channel water from higher elevations to the drier plains, facilitate agriculture and other vital activities. [38] There has been a restoration of qanat systems in recent years to help as an adaptation measure for the effects of climate change. Studies suggest that "The full restoration of the qanat system, a network of narrow water canals in urban and rural areas running across fields and on every street and alley, would also help to enable natural water flow while protecting against climate-induced flooding, which is frequent in Iran. In fact, traditional architecture in cities like Yazd has withstood flooding far better than modern buildings, benefitting from design features like inverted inner courtyard-facing structures, windowless street-facing walls, and natural air filtration built on dome-shaped roofs. " [39] The inherent design of qanats, provides a sustainable solution to water scarcity, a challenge exacerbated by climate change by mitigating evaporation as well as promote soil conservation. [40]

Iran climate legislation and policies are slowly evolving with a growing recognition of the impacts of climate change. Iran's approach to climate change adaptation and mitigation are governed through its impacts on its citizens, economy and its international commitments. [41] Iran's Five Year development plan (2017-2022) highlighted environmental sustainability focusing on reducing green house gas emissions and funding clean energy projects. [42] Iran's plans to combat climate change aligns with its global obligations it accepted in the Paris Agreement, with an aim to reduce emissions by unifying climate policies across different sectors, including energy, industry, agriculture, and waste management. [43]

To reduce the impact of worsening health issues caused by climate change in Iran, policies that implement mitigation and adaptation techniques are necessary. A study looked at the Paris Agreement and Iran's health care system. The impacts of climate change on public health in Iran necessitates evidence-based policy frameworks for mitigation and adaptation. A study aligned Iran's health system with the Paris Agreement's guidelines, finding that the agreement's prescription for focusing on reducing climate change's adverse impacts on public health. [44] Iran is taking proactive steps to adapt its health system against climate-induced challenges. After severe weather in 2019 Iran's ministry of health and medical education hosted a workshop to initiate a National Climate Change Adaptation Plan within the health sector which was supported by WHO. The workshop sought to find vulnerabilities in the current health sector to impacts like climate related disasters as well as vector borne diseases. [45]

Society and culture

Environmental issues like climate change and water mismanagement have lead to multiple protests and civil uprisings in Iran, showing a growing public environmental consciousness among Iranians. [46] [47] Rising temperatures coupled with severe drought and water mismanagement have severely damaged the economy, fueling widespread unrest and a demand for better water management. [48] Environmental activists and organizations, such as the Persian Wildlife Heritage Foundation, have played pivotal roles in raising awareness about Iran's environmental challenges. They face substantial risks, including arrests and accusations of espionage by governmental authorities. These activists and organizations face a significant threats including arrests as well as alleged interference from government authorities reflecting a broader political struggle. [49]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Libya and Yemen are the only other countries which have not ratified the Paris Agreement. [5]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change mitigation</span> Actions to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions to limit climate change

Climate change mitigation is action to limit the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that cause climate change. Greenhouse gas emissions are primarily caused by people burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. Phasing out fossil fuel use can happen by conserving energy and replacing fossil fuels with clean energy sources such as wind, hydro, solar, and nuclear power. Secondary mitigation strategies include changes to land use and removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. Governments have pledged to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but actions to date are insufficient to avoid dangerous levels of climate change.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon footprint</span> Concept to quantify greenhouse gas emissions from activities or products

A carbon footprint (or greenhouse gas footprint) is a calculated value or index that makes it possible to compare the total amount of greenhouse gases that an activity, product, company or country adds to the atmosphere. Carbon footprints are usually reported in tonnes of emissions (CO2-equivalent) per unit of comparison. Such units can be for example tonnes CO2-eq per year, per kilogram of protein for consumption, per kilometer travelled, per piece of clothing and so forth. A product's carbon footprint includes the emissions for the entire life cycle. These run from the production along the supply chain to its final consumption and disposal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas emissions</span> Sources and amounts of greenhouse gases emitted to the atmosphere from human activities

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from human activities intensify the greenhouse effect. This contributes to climate change. Carbon dioxide, from burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, is one of the most important factors in causing climate change. The largest emitters are China followed by the United States. The United States has higher emissions per capita. The main producers fueling the emissions globally are large oil and gas companies. Emissions from human activities have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 50% over pre-industrial levels. The growing levels of emissions have varied, but have been consistent among all greenhouse gases. Emissions in the 2010s averaged 56 billion tons a year, higher than any decade before. Total cumulative emissions from 1870 to 2017 were 425±20 GtC from fossil fuels and industry, and 180±60 GtC from land use change. Land-use change, such as deforestation, caused about 31% of cumulative emissions over 1870–2017, coal 32%, oil 25%, and gas 10%.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Japan</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Japan related to climate change

Climate change is an urgent and significant issue affecting Japan. In recent years, the country has observed notable changes in its climate patterns, with rising temperatures serving as a prominent indicator of this phenomenon. As an archipelago situated in northeastern Asia, Japan is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to its diverse geography and exposure to various weather systems. The nation experiences a broad range of climates, spanning from the frigid winters of Hokkaido to the subtropical climates of Okinawa. Changes in temperature patterns have the potential to disrupt ecosystems, impact agricultural productivity, modify water resources, and pose significant challenges to infrastructure and human settlements.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Russia</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Russia related to climate change

Climate change has serious effects on Russia's climate, including average temperatures and precipitation, as well as permafrost melting, more frequent wildfires, flooding and heatwaves. Changes may affect inland flash floods, more frequent coastal flooding and increased erosion reduced snow cover and glacier melting, and may ultimately lead to species losses and changes in ecosystem functioning.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Europe</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Europe related to climate change

Climate change has resulted in an increase in temperature of 2.3 °C (2022) in Europe compared to pre-industrial levels. Europe is the fastest warming continent in the world. Europe's climate is getting warmer due to anthropogenic activity. According to international climate experts, global temperature rise should not exceed 2 °C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of climate change; without reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, this could happen before 2050. Climate change has implications for all regions of Europe, with the extent and nature of impacts varying across the continent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Turkey</span> Impact of global warming on Turkey and adaptation to it

Droughts and heatwaves are the main hazards due to the climate of Turkey getting hotter. The temperature has risen by more than 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), and there is more extreme weather.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Germany</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Germany related to climate change

Climate change is leading to long-term impacts on agriculture in Germany, more intense heatwaves and coldwaves, flash and coastal flooding, and reduced water availability. Debates over how to address these long-term challenges caused by climate change have also sparked changes in the energy sector and in mitigation strategies. Germany's energiewende has been a significant political issue in German politics that has made coalition talks difficult for Angela Merkel's CDU.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Malaysia</span> Impact of global warming on the south-east Asian country and mitigating and adaptating to it

Climate change is having a considerable impact in Malaysia. Increasing temperatures are likely to greatly increase the number of heatwaves occurring annually. Variations in precipitation may increase the frequency of droughts and floods in various local areas. Sea level rise may inundate some coastal areas. These impacts are expected to have numerous environmental and socioeconomic effects, exacerbating existing environmental issues and reinforcing inequality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Morocco</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Morocco related to climate change

Climate change is expected to significantly impact Morocco on multiple dimensions, similar to other countries in the Middle East and North Africa region. As a coastal country with hot and arid climates, environmental impacts from climate change are likely to be wide and varied. Analysis of these environmental changes on the economy of Morocco are expected to create challenges at all levels of the economy. The main effects will be felt in the agricultural systems and fisheries which employ half of the population, and account for 14% of GDP. In addition, because 60% of the population and most of the industrial activity are on the coast, sea level rise is a major threat to key economic forces. Morocco’s average temperatures have increased by 0.2 °C per decade since the 1960s. Morocco is particularly susceptible to heat waves, droughts and floods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Poland</span> Climate change in Poland: emissions, climate observations, ecological and social impacts, responses

In Poland, climate change has resulted in an increase of average temperature above 2 degrees Celsius compared to preindustrial levels, which is higher than the average level of climate change in Europe. Temperature has been observed to increase over the last decades due to anthropogenic activity, and without significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions the effects of climate change will become ever more noticeable.

The climate of Greece is changing by way of increased drought, flooding, wildfires and sea level rise. These extreme weather conditions are likely to become more frequent and as a result landscapes and biodiversity will be affected. Climate change will also cause human activities such as land-use change, urbanisation and soil degradation to further affect Greek's ecosystems. Ecosystems in Greece are already at their tipping point, close to their environmental limits. Policies and laws have been put in place by the Greek government to try to manage these issues.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Indonesia</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of Indonesia

Due to its geographical and natural diversity, Indonesia is one of the countries most susceptible to the impacts of climate change. This is supported by the fact that Jakarta has been listed as the world's most vulnerable city, regarding climate change. It is also a major contributor as of the countries that has contributed most to greenhouse gas emissions due to its high rate of deforestation and reliance on coal power.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of the MENA region related to climate change

Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) refers to changes in the climate of the MENA region and the subsequent response, adaption and mitigation strategies of countries in the region. In 2018, the MENA region emitted 3.2 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide and produced 8.7% of global greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) despite making up only 6% of the global population. These emissions are mostly from the energy sector, an integral component of many Middle Eastern and North African economies due to the extensive oil and natural gas reserves that are found within the region. The region of Middle East is one of the most vulnerable to climate change. The impacts include increase in drought conditions, aridity, heatwaves and sea level rise.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in South Africa</span> Emissions, impacts and responses of South Africa related to climate change

Climate change in South Africa is leading to increased temperatures and rainfall variability. Evidence shows that extreme weather events are becoming more prominent due to climate change. This is a critical concern for South Africans as climate change will affect the overall status and wellbeing of the country, for example with regards to water resources. Just like many other parts of the world, climate research showed that the real challenge in South Africa was more related to environmental issues rather than developmental ones. The most severe effect will be targeting the water supply, which has huge effects on the agriculture sector. Speedy environmental changes are resulting in clear effects on the community and environmental level in different ways and aspects, starting with air quality, to temperature and weather patterns, reaching out to food security and disease burden.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Israel</span>

Israel, like many other countries in the Middle East and North Africa, experience adverse effects from climate change. Annual and mean temperatures are increasing in Israel, with mean temperature expected to increase between 1.6 and 1.8 °C by 2100. There is a reduction in annual precipitation and delayed winter rains. Israel is already experiencing droughts and water shortages. Heatwaves are other natural hazards expected to increase with climate change.

Climate change impacts are occurring in Zimbabwe, even though the country's contribution to greenhouse gas emissions is very minimal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Namibia</span>

Climate change is the consequence of long-term alterations in the Earth's climate caused by the emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). These gases can trap heat in the atmosphere, resulting in global warming and a heightened temperature on our planet. The activities carried out by humans, such as the utilization of fossil fuels, along with large-scale commercial agriculture and deforestation, are accountable for the release of these greenhouse gases. The escalating temperatures and escalating extreme heat conditions, uncertain and progressively unpredictable precipitation, and extreme weather provoke new challenges and exacerbate existing ones.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change in Eswatini</span>

Eswatini also known as Swaziland, a landlocked nation located in Southern Africa, is characterized by a subtropical climate that features wet and hot summers as well as cold and dry winters. The country has expressed concern regarding the impact of climate change on its existing social challenges, which include but are not limited to issues such as poverty, a high prevalence of HIV, and food insecurity. Furthermore, it is anticipated that climate change will significantly impede the country's development progress, by Vision 2022.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate Change in Malawi</span>

Malawi is a land-locked country in southeastern Africa situated along the southernmost arm of the East African Rift-Valley System between latitudes 9°22’ and 17°03’ south of the equator, and longitudes 33°40’ and 35°55’ east of the Greenwich meridian. It shares borders with Tanzania in the north and northeast, Mozambique in the southwest, south, and east, and Zambia in the west. Malawi is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change as the vast majority of Malawians rely on small-scale, rain-fed agriculture, making them highly dependent on weather patterns. Climate change increasingly exacerbates droughts, flooding, and inconsistent rainfall—contributing to food insecurity and threatening to derail progress toward Malawi’s goal of self-reliance.

References

  1. ↑ Shadkam, Somayeh; Ludwig, Fulco; van Oel, Pieter; Kirmit, Çağla; Kabat, Pavel (2016-10-01). "Impacts of climate change and water resources development on the declining inflow into Iran's Urmia Lake". Journal of Great Lakes Research. 42 (5): 942–952. doi:10.1016/j.jglr.2016.07.033. ISSN   0380-1330.
  2. ↑ AJLabs. "Mapping the hottest temperatures around the world". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 2023-10-27.
  3. ↑ "Climate profile: Iran". Atlantic Council. Retrieved 2023-10-20.
  4. ↑ Anderson, Maia Golzar (September 22, 2023). "Bringing Iran to the climate action table".
  5. ↑ "United Nations Treaty Collection". treaties.un.org. Retrieved 2023-11-16.
  6. 1 2 "Iran Climate Fact Sheet" (PDF). Climate Centre. 2021. Retrieved 28 April 2024.
  7. ↑ "Iran - Countries & Regions". IEA. Retrieved 2024-04-28.
  8. ↑ "Iran Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions 1990-2023". www.macrotrends.net. Retrieved 2023-10-20.
  9. ↑ "Iran". UNDP Climate Promise. Retrieved 2023-11-17. Iran has not yet signed the Paris Agreement. Therefore, the country has not submitted an NDC
  10. ↑ "EDGAR - The Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research". edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 2023-11-17.
  11. ↑ Shojaei, S. Mohammad; Vahabpour, Amir; Saifoddin, Amir Ali; Ghasempour, Roghayeh (May 2023). "Estimation of greenhouse gas emissions from Iran's gas flaring by using satellite data and combustion equations". Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management. 19 (3): 735–748. doi:10.1002/ieam.4684. ISSN   1551-3793. PMID   36151901.
  12. ↑ Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max; Rosado, Pablo (2020-05-11). "CO₂ and Greenhouse Gas Emissions". Our World in Data.
  13. ↑ "Global energy-related greenhouse gas emissions, 2000-2022 – Charts – Data & Statistics". IEA. Retrieved 2023-11-17.
  14. 1 2 Mansouri Daneshvar, Mohammad Reza; Ebrahimi, Majid; Nejadsoleymani, Hamid (2019-03-01). "An overview of climate change in Iran: facts and statistics". Environmental Systems Research. 8 (1): 7. doi: 10.1186/s40068-019-0135-3 . ISSN   2193-2697.
  15. ↑ Mousavi, Arefeh; Ardalan, Ali; Takian, Amirhossein; Ostadtaghizadeh, Abbas; Naddafi, Kazem; Bavani, Alireza Massah (2020-04-02). "Climate change and health in Iran: a narrative review". Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering. 18 (1): 367–378. doi:10.1007/s40201-020-00462-3. ISSN   2052-336X. PMC   7203306 . PMID   32399247.
  16. ↑ Mansouri Daneshvar, Mohammad Reza; Ebrahimi, Majid; Nejadsoleymani, Hamid (2019-03-01). "An overview of climate change in Iran: facts and statistics". Environmental Systems Research. 8 (1): 7. doi: 10.1186/s40068-019-0135-3 . ISSN   2193-2697.
  17. ↑ Mansouri Daneshvar, Mohammad Reza; Ebrahimi, Majid; Nejadsoleymani, Hamid (2019-03-01). "An overview of climate change in Iran: facts and statistics". Environmental Systems Research. 8 (1): 7. doi: 10.1186/s40068-019-0135-3 . ISSN   2193-2697.
  18. ↑ "Iran Climate Fact Sheet" (PDF). Climate Centre. 2021.
  19. ↑ Ghanavati, E.; Shah-Hosseini, M.; Marriner, N. Analysis of the Makran Coastline of Iran’s Vulnerability to Global Sea-Level Rise. J. Mar. Sci. Eng.2021, 9, 891. doi : 10.3390/jmse9080891
  20. 1 2 Ghanavati, Ezatollah; Shah-Hosseini, Majid; Marriner, Nick (August 2021). "Analysis of the Makran Coastline of Iran's Vulnerability to Global Sea-Level Rise". Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 9 (8): 891. doi: 10.3390/jmse9080891 . ISSN   2077-1312.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 "Iran's Climate Change Crisis: Domestic Challenges and Regional Consequences". epc.ae. Retrieved 2023-10-29.
  22. 1 2 "Iran's growing climate migration crisis". Middle East Institute. Retrieved 2023-10-29.
  23. 1 2 3 "Iran's Climate Change Crisis: Domestic Challenges and Regional Consequences". epc.ae. Retrieved 2023-10-29.
  24. ↑ "Iran Wheat Area, Yield and Production". ipad.fas.usda.gov. Retrieved 2023-10-29.
  25. 1 2 Nazari, Meisam; Mirgol, Behnam; Salehi, Hamid (2021). "Climate Change Impact Assessment and Adaptation Strategies for Rainfed Wheat in Contrasting Climatic Regions of Iran". Frontiers in Agronomy. 3. doi: 10.3389/fagro.2021.806146 . ISSN   2673-3218.
  26. ↑ Modarres, Reza; Sarhadi, Ali; Burn, Donald H. (2016-09-01). "Changes of extreme drought and flood events in Iran". Global and Planetary Change. 144: 67–81. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2016.07.008. ISSN   0921-8181.
  27. ↑ Mansouri Daneshvar, Mohammad Reza; Ebrahimi, Majid; Nejadsoleymani, Hamid (2019-03-01). "An overview of climate change in Iran: facts and statistics". Environmental Systems Research. 8 (1): 7. doi: 10.1186/s40068-019-0135-3 . ISSN   2193-2697.
  28. 1 2 Farajzadeh, Zakariya; Ghorbanian, Effat; Tarazkar, Mohammad Hassan (2022-10-20). "The shocks of climate change on economic growth in developing economies: Evidence from Iran". Journal of Cleaner Production. 372: 133687. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133687. ISSN   0959-6526.
  29. ↑ "Climate change: Iran says lift sanctions and we'll ratify Paris agreement". BBC News. 2021-11-11. Retrieved 2023-10-29.
  30. ↑ Day, Ed; Fankhauser, Sam; Kingsmill, Nick; Costa, Hélia; Mavrogianni, Anna (2019-03-16). "Upholding labour productivity under climate change: an assessment of adaptation options". Climate Policy. 19 (3): 367–385. doi: 10.1080/14693062.2018.1517640 . ISSN   1469-3062.
  31. 1 2 Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max; Rosado, Pablo (2020-05-11). "CO₂ and Greenhouse Gas Emissions". Our World in Data.
  32. ↑ UNFCC (2017). "Third National Communication Iran" (PDF).
  33. ↑ Biofuels International (August 10, 2015). "Irianian researchers produce biodiesel from flixweed".
  34. ↑ "Advanced BioFuels USA – Biodiesel Production Plant Opens in Central Iran". advancedbiofuelsusa.info. Retrieved 2023-12-17.
  35. ↑ "Economics of Biofuel". US Enivornmental Protection Agency. March 27, 2023.
  36. ↑ "Policies & action". climateactiontracker.org. Retrieved 2023-12-03.
  37. ↑ "Climate change: Iran says lift sanctions and we'll ratify Paris agreement". BBC News. 2021-11-11. Retrieved 2022-12-22.
  38. ↑ Manuel, Mark; Lightfoot, Dale; Fattahi, Morteza (2018-03-01). "The sustainability of ancient water control techniques in Iran: an overview". Water History. 10 (1): 13–30. doi: 10.1007/s12685-017-0200-7 . ISSN   1877-7244.
  39. ↑ "Iran's growing climate migration crisis". Middle East Institute. Retrieved 2023-10-27.
  40. ↑ Environment, U. N. (2022-08-05). "The Community Benefits of Iran's Traditional Qanat Systems - Case Study". UNEP - UN Environment Programme. Retrieved 2023-10-27.
  41. ↑ "Policies & action". climateactiontracker.org. Retrieved 2023-10-29.
  42. ↑ Guidelines for Estimating Greenhouse Gas Emissions of ADB Projects (Report). Manila, Philippines: Asian Development Bank. 2017-04-01. doi: 10.22617/tim178659-2 . ISBN   9789292577803.
  43. ↑ "Republic of Iran – Third National Communication to United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change" (PDF). unfccc.int. Retrieved 2023-10-29.
  44. ↑ Mousavi, Arefeh; Ardalan, Ali; Takian, Amirhossein; Ostadtaghizadeh, Abbas; Naddafi, Kazem; Bavani, Alireza Massah (2020-09-11). "Health system plan for implementation of Paris agreement on climate change (COP 21): a qualitative study in Iran". BMC Public Health. 20 (1): 1388. doi: 10.1186/s12889-020-09503-w . ISSN   1471-2458. PMC   7488526 . PMID   32917169.
  45. ↑ "WHO Collaborates with Islamic Republic of Iran in Strengthening National Climate Change Adaptation Plan - Iran (Islamic Republic of) | ReliefWeb". reliefweb.int. 2019-11-03. Retrieved 2023-10-29.
  46. ↑ "The Energy Chief Trying to Get the UK to Speed Up Carbon Capture". Bloomberg.com. 2023-10-28. Retrieved 2023-10-29.
  47. ↑ Dagres, Holly (2023-04-21). "Springtime in Iran signals the renewal of an environmental movement". Atlantic Council. Retrieved 2023-12-03.
  48. ↑ Waldman,ClimateWire, Scott. "Climate Change May Have Helped Spark Iran's Protests". Scientific American. Retrieved 2023-10-29.
  49. ↑ "Iran's Environmentalists Are Caught Up in a Political Power Struggle | Human Rights Watch". 2018-10-18. Retrieved 2023-10-29.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.