Cooking oil

Last updated
A variety of cooking oils on a store shelf. HK food products Shi Yong You Lei eating oil bottles January 2021 SS2 05.jpg
A variety of cooking oils on a store shelf.

Cooking oil (also known as edible oil) is a plant or animal liquid fat used in frying, baking, and other types of cooking. Oil allows higher cooking temperatures than water, making cooking faster and more flavorful, while likewise distributing heat, reducing burning and uneven cooking. It sometimes imparts its own flavor. Cooking oil is also used in food preparation and flavoring not involving heat, such as salad dressings and bread dips.

Contents

Cooking oil is typically a liquid at room temperature, although some oils that contain saturated fat, such as coconut oil, palm oil and palm kernel oil are solid. [1]

There are a wide variety of cooking oils from plant sources such as olive oil, palm oil, soybean oil, canola oil (rapeseed oil), corn oil, peanut oil and other vegetable oils, as well as animal-based oils like butter and lard.

Oil can be flavored with aromatic foodstuffs such as herbs, chilies or garlic. Cooking spray is an aerosol of cooking oil.

Health and nutrition

While consumption of small amounts of saturated fats is common in diets, [2] meta-analyses found a significant correlation between high consumption of saturated fats and blood LDL concentration, [3] a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. [4] Other meta-analyses based on cohort studies and on controlled, randomized trials found a positive, [5] or neutral, [6] effect from consuming polyunsaturated fats instead of saturated fats (a 10% lower risk for 5% replacement). [6]

Mayo Clinic has highlighted certain oils that are high in saturated fats, including coconut, palm oil and palm kernel oil. Those having lower amounts of saturated fats and higher levels of unsaturated (preferably omega-3) fats like olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, soy and cottonseed oils are generally healthier. [7] The US National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute [8] urged saturated fats be replaced with polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats, listing olive and canola oils as sources of healthier monounsaturated oils while soybean and sunflower oils as good sources of polyunsaturated fats. One study showed that consumption of non-hydrogenated unsaturated oils like soybean and sunflower is preferable to the consumption of palm oil for lowering the risk of heart disease. [9]

Cashew oil and other nut-based oils do not present a danger to persons with a nut allergy, because oils are primarily lipids, and allergic reactions are due to surface proteins on the nut. [10]

The seeds of most cultivated plants contain higher levels of omega-6 fatty acids than omega-3, with some notable exceptions. Growth at colder temperatures tends to result in higher levels of omega-3 fatty acids in seed oils. [11]

Trans fats

Unlike other dietary fats, trans fats are not essential, and they do not promote good health. [12] The consumption of trans fats increases one's risk of coronary heart disease [13] by raising levels of LDL cholesterol and lowering levels of HDL cholesterol. [14] Trans fats from partially hydrogenated oils are more harmful than naturally occurring oils. [15]

Several large studies [16] [17] [18] [19] indicate a link between the consumption of high amounts of trans fat and coronary heart disease, and possibly some other diseases. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute and the American Heart Association (AHA) all have recommended limiting the intake of trans fats. In the US, trans fats are no longer "generally recognized as safe", and cannot be added to foods, including cooking oils, without special permission. [20]

Cooking with oil

Lisbon oil merchant, c. 1900. Marchand d'huile a Lisbonne (ane en profil).jpg
Lisbon oil merchant, c. 1900.
Olive oil Olive oil.jpg
Olive oil
Sunflower seed oil Sunflowerseed oil.jpg
Sunflower seed oil

Heating, as well as heating vessels rapidly change characteristics of cooking oil. [21] Oils that are healthy at room temperature can become unhealthy when heated above certain temperatures, especially when heating repeatedly. The toxic risk is linked to oxidation of fatty acids and fatty acids with higher levels of unsaturation are oxidized more rapidly during heating in air. [22] So, when choosing a cooking oil, it is important to match the oil's heat tolerance with the temperature which will be used. [23] and to change frying oil a few times per week. [22] Deep-fat frying temperatures are commonly in the range of 170–190 °C (338–374 °F), less commonly, lower temperatures ≥ 130 °C (266 °F) are used. [24]

Palm oil contains more saturated fats than canola oil, corn oil, linseed oil, soybean oil, safflower oil, and sunflower oil. Therefore, palm oil can withstand deep frying at higher temperatures and is resistant to oxidation compared to high-polyunsaturated vegetable oils. [25] Since the 1900s, palm oil has been increasingly added into food by the global commercial food industry because it remains stable in deep frying, or in baking at very high temperatures, [26] [27] and for its high levels of natural antioxidants, though the refined palm oil used in industrial food has lost most of its carotenoid content (and its orange-red color). [28]

The following oils are suitable for high-temperature frying due to their high smoke point:

Less aggressive frying temperatures are frequently used. [30] A quality frying oil has a bland flavor, at least 200 °C (392 °F) smoke and 315 °C (599 °F) flash points, with maximums of 0.1% free fatty acids and 3% linolenic acid. [31] Those oils with higher linolenic fractions are avoided due to polymerization or gumming marked by increases in viscosity with age. [30] Olive oil resists thermal degradation and has been used as a frying oil for thousands of years. [30]

Storing and keeping oil

All oils degrade in response to heat, light, and oxygen. [32] To delay the onset of rancidity, a blanket of an inert gas, usually nitrogen, is applied to the vapor space in the storage container immediately after production – a process called tank blanketing.[ citation needed ] [33]

In a cool, dry place, oils have greater stability, but may thicken, although they will soon return to liquid form if they are left at room temperature. To minimize the degrading effects of heat and light, oils should be removed from cold storage just long enough for use.[ citation needed ]

Refined oils high in monounsaturated fats, such as macadamia oil, [32] keep up to a year, while those high in polyunsaturated fats, such as soybean oil, keep about six months. Rancidity tests have shown that the shelf life of walnut oil is about 3 months, a period considerably shorter than the best before date shown on labels. [32]

By contrast, oils high in saturated fats, such as avocado oil, have relatively long shelf lives and can be safely stored at room temperature, as the low polyunsaturated fat content facilitates stability. [32]

Types and characteristics

Cooking oils are composed of various fractions of fatty acids. [34] For the purpose of frying food, oils high in monounsaturated or saturated fats are generally popular, while oils high in polyunsaturated fats are less desirable. [24] High oleic acid oils include almond, macadamia, olive, pecan, pistachio, and high-oleic cultivars of safflower and sunflower. [35]

Oils and fats Saturated fatty acids MUFA PUFA
4:06:08:010:012:014:016:018:020:022:024:016:118:120:122:118:218:3
 
Almond [36] 6.51.70.669.417.4
Almond [37] 157717
Apricot kernel [36] 5.80.51.558.529.3
Avocado [36] 10.90.72.767.912.51
Basil [38] 8.51124.554.5
Brazil nut [39] 0.113.511.80.50.329.10.242.80.2
Butter [40] 5.32.81.63.13.410.828.110.61.420.80.32
Butter, anhydrous [36] 3.21.91.12.52.81026.212.12.2252.21.4
Canola [36] 4.32.10.70.30.261.71.3199.1
Canola [41] 3.91.90.60.20.20.264.1118.79.2
Cashew [38] 11.596117
Cocoa butter [36] 0.125.433.20.232.62.80.1
Coconut [42] 0.47.36.647.818.18.92.70.16.41.6
Corn [36] 10.61.80.40.127.30.153.51.2
Cottonseed [43] 0.925.52.50.30.20.617.752.20.1
Grapeseed [36] 0.16.72.70.315.869.60.1
Hazelnut [39] 0.15.82.70.20.379.30.210.40.5
Hemp [38] 6.5311.556.520
Lard [44] 0.10.21.424.914.12.843.110.71
Macadamia nut [39] 18.43.22.317.365.12.22.30.1
Olive [36] 11.320.40.11.371.30.39.80.8
Olive, Virgin [45] 13.82.80.11.96912.2
Palm kernel [46] 0.33.63.34816.78.52.114.92.5
Palm [47] 0.31.143.54.30.20.239.810.20.3
Palm [36] 0.1143.54.30.336.60.19.10.2
Peanut [41] 0.111.63.11.5310.246.51.431.4
Rapeseed [45] 4.81.960.522.59.5
Rice bran [48] 0.419.81.90.90.30.242.30.531.91.2
Safflower, high oleic [36] 0.14.91.90.40.30.174.80.312.70.1
Safflower [49] 7.32.513.675.70.5
Sesame [50] 0.19.25.80.70.20.140.60.242.60.3
Soybean [36] 10.54.40.40.422.60.2516.8
Soybean [41] 0.11140.30.10.123.453.27.8
Soybean, low linolenic [43] 10.84.50.40.426.155.42
Soybean, high oleic [note 1] 7.33.40.40.485.11.32
Sunflower [41] 0.50.26.84.70.40.118.668.20.5
Sunflower, high linoleic [36] 5.94.519.565.7
Sunflower, linoleic [36] 5.43.50.245.339.80.2
Sunflower, mid-oleic [36] 0.14.23.60.30.80.1570.228.9
Sunflower, high oleic [36] 0.13.74.310.182.613.60.2
Sunflower, high oleic I [51] 53829
Sunflower, high oleic II [51] 54901
Tallow, beef [36] 0.93.724.918.94.2360.33.10.6
Tallow, mutton [36] 3.821.519.52.337.65.52.3
Walnut [39] 0.16.72.30.10.2210.257.511.6
[52] Parts per hundred
  1. ↑ Warner and Gupta reported fishy and stale flavors in potato chips fried in this oil and attributed them to the unusual linoleic:linolenic acids ratio. [43]

Smoke point

The smoke point is marked by "a continuous wisp of smoke". [53] It is the temperature at which an oil starts to burn, leading to a burnt flavor in the foods being prepared and degradation of nutrients and phytochemicals characteristic of the oil. [54]

Above the smoke point are flash and fire points. [53] The flash point is the temperature at which oil vapors will ignite but are not produced in sufficient quantities to stay lit. The flash point generally occurs at about 275–330 °C (527–626 °F). [55] The fire point is the temperature at which hot oil produces sufficient vapors they will catch on fire and burn. [55] As frying hours increase, all these temperature points decrease. [55] They depend more on an oil's acidity than fatty-acid profile. [56]

The smoke point of cooking oils varies generally in association with how oil is refined: a higher smoke point results from removal of impurities and free fatty acids. [54] Residual solvent remaining from the refining process may decrease the smoke point. [56] It has been reported to increase with the inclusion of antioxidants (BHA, BHT, and TBHQ). For these reasons, the published smoke points of oils may vary. [56]

FatQualitySmoke point [caution 1]
Almond oil 221 °C430 °F [57]
Avocado oil Refined271 °C520 °F [58] [59]
Avocado oil Unrefined250 °C482 °F [60]
Beef tallow 250 °C480 °F
Butter 150 °C302 °F [61]
Butter Clarified250 °C482 °F [62]
Castor oil Refined200 °C [63] 392 °F
Coconut oil Refined, dry204 °C400 °F [64]
Coconut oil Unrefined, dry expeller pressed, virgin177 °C350 °F [64]
Corn oil 230–238 °C [65] 446–460 °F
Corn oil Unrefined178 °C [63] 352 °F
Cottonseed oil Refined, bleached, deodorized220–230 °C [66] 428–446 °F
Flaxseed oil Unrefined107 °C225 °F [59]
Grape seed oil 216 °C421 °F
Lard 190 °C374 °F [61]
Mustard oil 250 °C480 °F [67]
Olive oil Refined199–243 °C390–470 °F [68]
Olive oil Virgin210 °C410 °F
Olive oil Extra virgin, low acidity, high quality207 °C405 °F [59] [69]
Olive oil Extra virgin190 °C374 °F [69]
Palm oil Fractionated235 °C [70] 455 °F
Peanut oil Refined232 °C [59] 450 °F
Peanut oil 227–229 °C [59] [71] 441–445 °F
Peanut oil Unrefined160 °C [59] 320 °F
Pecan oil 243 °C [72] 470 °F
Rapeseed oil (Canola)220–230 °C [73] 428–446 °F
Rapeseed oil (Canola)Expeller press190–232 °C375–450 °F [74]
Rapeseed oil (Canola)Refined204 °C400 °F
Rapeseed oil (Canola)Unrefined107 °C225 °F
Rice bran oil Refined232 °C [48] 450 °F
Safflower oil Unrefined107 °C225 °F [59]
Safflower oil Semirefined160 °C320 °F [59]
Safflower oil Refined266 °C510 °F [59]
Sesame oil Unrefined177 °C350 °F [59]
Sesame oil Semirefined232 °C450 °F [59]
Soybean oil 234 °C [75] 453 °F
Sunflower oil Neutralized, dewaxed, bleached & deodorized252–254 °C [76] 486–489 °F
Sunflower oil Semirefined232 °C [59] 450 °F
Sunflower oil 227 °C [59] 441 °F
Sunflower oil Unrefined, first cold-pressed, raw107 °C [77] 225 °F
Sunflower oil, high oleic Refined232 °C450 °F [59]
Sunflower oil, high oleic Unrefined160 °C320 °F [59]
Vegetable oil blendRefined220 °C [69] 428 °F
  1. ↑ Specified smoke, fire, and flash points of any fat and oil can be misleading: they depend almost entirely upon the free fatty acid content, which increases during storage or use. The smoke point of fats and oils decreases when they are at least partially split into free fatty acids and glycerol; the glycerol portion decomposes to form acrolein, which is the major source of the smoke evolved from heated fats and oils. A partially hydrolyzed oil therefore smokes at a lower temperature than non-hydrolyzed oil. (Adapted from Gunstone, Frank D., ed. (17 March 2011). Vegetable Oils in Food Technology: Composition, Properties and Uses. Wiley, Inc. OCLC   1083187382.)

Oils are extracted from nuts, seeds, olives, grains or legumes by extraction using industrial chemicals or by mechanical processes. Expeller pressing is a chemical-free process that collects oils from a source using a mechanical press with minimal heat. Cold-pressed oils are extracted under a controlled temperature setting usually below 105 °C (221 °F) intended to preserve naturally occurring phytochemicals, such as polyphenols, tocotrienols, plant sterols and vitamin E which collectively affect color, flavor, aroma and nutrient value. [54] [78]

Type of
oil or fat 		SFA MUFA PUFA Omega- Smoke point

[79] [80]

Uses
3 6
Almond 8% 66% 26% 0 17% 221 °C (430 °F) Baking, sauces, flavoring
Avocado oil 12% 74% 14% 0.95% 12% 271 °C (520 °F) Frying, sautéing, dipping oil, salad oil
Butter 66% 30% 4% 0.3% 2.7% 150 °C (302 °F) Cooking, baking, condiment, sauces, flavoring
Butter, clarified, Ghee 65% 32% 3% 0 0 190–250 °C (374–482 °F) Deep frying, cooking, sautéing, condiment, flavoring
Canola oil 6% 62% 32% 9.1% 18% 225 °C (437 °F) [73] Frying, baking, salad dressings
Coconut oil (virgin) 92% 6% 2% 0 1.8% 177 °C (351 °F) Cooking, tropical cuisine, beauty products
Corn oil 13% 25% 62% 1.1% 53% 235 °C (455 °F) [81] Frying, baking, salad dressings, margarine, shortening
Cottonseed oil 24% 26% 50% 0.2% 50% 216 °C (421 °F) Margarine, shortening, salad dressings, commercially fried products
Diacylglycerol (DAG) oil 3.05% 37.95% 59% 0 - 215 °C (419 °F) Frying, baking, salad oil
Linseed oil [82] 11% 21% 68% 53% 13% 107 °C (225 °F) Salad dressings, nutritional supplement
Grapeseed oil 12% 17% 71% 0.1% 69% 204 °C (399 °F) Cooking, salad dressings, margarine
Hemp oil 9% 12% 79% 18% 55% 165 °C (329 °F) Cooking, salad dressings
Lard 41% 47% 2% 1% 10% 183–205 °C (361–401 °F) Baking, frying
Macadamia oil 12.5% 84% 3.5% 0 2.8% 210 °C (410 °F) Cooking, frying, deep frying, salads, dressings. A slightly nutty odour.
Margarine (hard) 80% 14% 6% 2% 22% 150 °C (302 °F) Cooking, baking, condiment
Margarine (soft) 20% 47% 33% 2.4% 23% 150–160 °C (302–320 °F) Cooking, baking, condiment
Mustard oil 13% 60% 21% 5.9% 15% 254 °C (489 °F) Cooking, frying, deep frying, salads, dressings. Very clean flavoured & palatable.
Olive oil (extra virgin) 14% 73% 11% 0.7% 9.8% 190 °C (374 °F) Cooking, salad oils, margarine
Olive oil (virgin) 14% 73% 11% 0.7% 9.8% 215 °C (419 °F) Cooking, salad oils, margarine
Olive oil (refined) 14% 73% 11% 0 0 225 °C (437 °F) Sautee, stir frying, deep frying, cooking, salad oils, margarine
Olive oil (extra light) 14% 73% 11% 0 0 242 °C (468 °F) Sautee, stir frying, frying, deep frying, cooking, salad oils, margarine
Palm oil 52% 38% 10% 0.2% 9.1% 230 °C (446 °F) Frying, [83] cooking, flavoring, vegetable oil, shortening
Peanut oil 18% 49% 33% 0 31% 231 °C (448 °F) Frying, cooking, salad oils, margarine, deep frying
Pumpkin seed oil 8% 36% 57% 0% 64% 121 °C (250 °F) Salad oils
Rice bran oil 20% 47% 33% 1.6% 33% 213 °C (415 °F) [48] Cooking, frying, deep frying, salads, dressings. Very clean flavoured & palatable.
Safflower oil (high oleic) [84] [85] 6% 75% 13% 242 °C (468 °F) [81] Frying, cooking
Safflower oil (linoleic) [86] 6% 14% 75% 242 °C (468 °F) [81] Cooking, salad dressings, margarine
Sesame oil (unrefined) 14% 43% 43% 0.3 41% 177 °C (351 °F) Cooking
Sesame oil (semi-refined) 14% 43% 43% 0.3 41% 232 °C (450 °F) Cooking, deep frying
Soybean oil 15% 24% 61% 6.7% 50% 240 °C (464 °F) [81] Cooking, salad dressings, vegetable oil, margarine, shortening
Sunflower oil (high oleic, refined) [87] 9% 82% 9% 0.2% 3.6% 244 °C (471 °F) [81] Frying, cooking [88]
Sunflower oil (linoleic, refined) [87] 11% 20% 69% 0% 56% 240 °C (464 °F) [81] Cooking, salad dressings, margarine, shortening
Sunflower oil (mid-oleic, refined, NuSun) [87] 9% 65% 26% 211 °C (412 °F) [81] Commercial food manufacturing
Tea seed oil [89] 22% 60% 18% 0.7% 22% 252 °C (486 °F) Cooking, salad dressings, stir frying, frying, margarine
Tallow [90] 43% 50% 4% 1% 3% Cooking, shortening, pemmican, deep frying
Walnut oil (semi-refined) 9% 23% 63% 10% 53% 204 °C (399 °F) [91] Salad dressings, added to cold dishes to enhance flavor
[92]

Comparison to other types of food

Fat composition in different foods
Fat composition in foods.svg
FoodSaturatedMono-
unsaturated		Poly-
unsaturated
As weight percent (%) of total fat
Cooking oils
Algal oil [93] 4924
Canola [94] 86428
Coconut oil 87130
Corn oil 132459
Cottonseed oil [94] 271954
Olive oil [95] 147311
Palm kernel oil [94] 86122
Palm oil [94] 513910
Peanut oil [96] 174632
Rice bran oil 253837
Safflower oil, high oleic [97] 67514
Safflower oil, linoleic [94] [98] 61475
Soybean oil 152458
Sunflower oil [99] 112069
Mustard oil 115921
Dairy products
Butterfat [94] 66304
Cheese, regular64293
Cheese, light60300
Ice cream, gourmet62294
Ice cream, light62294
Milk, whole62284
Milk, 2%62300
Whipping cream [100] *66265
Meats
Beef33385
Ground sirloin38444
Pork chop35448
Ham354916
Chicken breast293421
Chicken342330
Turkey breast302030
Turkey drumstick322230
Fish, orange roughy231546
Salmon283328
Hot dog, beef42485
Hot dog, turkey284022
Burger, fast food36446
Cheeseburger, fast food43407
Breaded chicken sandwich203932
Grilled chicken sandwich264220
Sausage, Polish374611
Sausage, turkey284022
Pizza, sausage413220
Pizza, cheese60285
Nuts
Almonds dry roasted96521
Cashews dry roasted205917
Macadamia dry roasted15792
Peanut dry roasted145031
Pecans dry roasted86225
Flaxseeds, ground82365
Sesame seeds 143844
Soybeans 142257
Sunflower seeds 111966
Walnuts dry roasted92363
Sweets and baked goods
Candy, chocolate bar59333
Candy, fruit chews144438
Cookie, oatmeal raisin224727
Cookie, chocolate chip354218
Cake, yellow602510
Pastry, Danish503114
Fats added during cooking or at the table
Butter, stick63293
Butter, whipped62294
Margarine, stick183939
Margarine, tub163349
Margarine, light tub194633
Lard394511
Shortening254526
Chicken fat304521
Beef fat41433
Goose fat [101] 335511
Dressing, blue cheese165425
Dressing, light Italian142458
Other
Egg yolk fat [102] 364416
Avocado [103] 167113
Unless else specified in boxes, then reference is:[ citation needed ]
* 3% is trans fats

Extraction and refinement

Olive oil production in Croatia Uljara.jpg
Olive oil production in Croatia

Cooking oil extraction and refinement are separate processes. Extraction first removes the oil, typically from a seed, nut or fruit. Refinement then alters the appearance, texture, taste, smell, or stability of the oil to meet buyer expectations.

Extraction

There are three broad types of oil extraction:

In large-scale industrial oil extraction you will often see some combination of pressing, chemical extraction and/or centrifuging in order to extract the maximum amount of oil possible. [104]

Refinement

Cooking oil can either be unrefined, or refined using one or more of the following refinement processes (in any combination): [105]

Filtering, a non-chemical process which screens out larger particles, could be considered a step in refinement, although it doesn't alter the state of the oil.

Most large-scale commercial cooking oil refinement will involve all of these steps in order to achieve a product that's uniform in taste, smell and appearance, and has a longer shelf life. [104] Cooking oil intended for the health food market will often be unrefined, which can result in a less stable product but minimizes exposure to high temperatures and chemical processing.

Waste cooking oil

A bin for spent cooking oil in Austin, Texas, managed by a recycling company. SpentcookingoilbinAustinTX.JPG
A bin for spent cooking oil in Austin, Texas, managed by a recycling company.

Proper disposal of used cooking oil is an important waste-management concern. Oil can congeal in pipes, causing sanitary sewer overflow. [108] Because of this, cooking oil should never be dumped in the kitchen sink or in the toilet bowl. The proper way to dispose of oil is to put it in a sealed non-recyclable container and discard it with regular garbage. [109] Placing the container of oil in the refrigerator to harden also makes disposal easier and less messy.

Recycling

Cooking oil can be recycled. It can be used in animal feed, soap, make-up, clothes, rubber, detergents, directly as fuel, and to produce biodiesel. [110] [111] [112]

In the recycling industry, used cooking oil recovered from restaurants and food-processing industries (typically from deep fryers or griddles) is called yellow grease, recycled vegetable oil (RVO), used vegetable oil (UVO), or waste vegetable oil (WVO). [113]

Grease traps or interceptors collect fats and oils from kitchen sinks and floor drains. The result is called brown grease, and unlike yellow grease its severe contaminants make it much harder to recycle.

Adulteration

Gutter oil and trench oil are terms used in China to describe recycled oil processed to resemble virgin oil, but containing toxic contaminants and sold illegally for cooking; its origin is frequently brown grease from garbage. [114]

In Kenya, thieves sell stolen electric transformers to operators of roadside food stalls for reuse of the oil in deep frying, suitable for prolonged use longer than regular cooking oil, but a threat to consumer health due to the presence of PCBs and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. [115]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fat</span> Esters of fatty acid or triglycerides

In nutrition, biology, and chemistry, fat usually means any ester of fatty acids, or a mixture of such compounds, most commonly those that occur in living beings or in food.

α-Linolenic acid Chemical compound

α-Linolenic acid, also known as alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), is an n−3, or omega-3, essential fatty acid. ALA is found in many seeds and oils, including flaxseed, walnuts, chia, hemp, and many common vegetable oils.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vegetable oil</span> Oil extracted from seeds or from other parts of fruits

Vegetable oils, or vegetable fats, are oils extracted from seeds or from other parts of fruits. Like animal fats, vegetable fats are mixtures of triglycerides. Soybean oil, grape seed oil, and cocoa butter are examples of seed oils, or fats from seeds. Olive oil, palm oil, and rice bran oil are examples of fats from other parts of fruits. In common usage, vegetable oil may refer exclusively to vegetable fats which are liquid at room temperature. Vegetable oils are usually edible.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Margarine</span> Semi-solid oily spread often used as a butter substitute

Margarine is a spread used for flavoring, baking, and cooking. It is most often used as a substitute for butter. Although originally made from animal fats, most margarine consumed today is made from vegetable oil. The spread was originally named oleomargarine from Latin for oleum and Greek margarite. The name was later shortened to margarine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coconut oil</span> Edible oil derived from coconut

Coconut oil is an edible oil derived from the kernels, meat, and milk of the coconut palm fruit. Coconut oil is a white solid fat below around 25 °C (77 °F), and a clear thin liquid oil in warmer climates. Unrefined varieties have a distinct coconut aroma. Coconut oil is used as a food oil, and in industrial applications for cosmetics and detergent production. The oil is rich in medium-chain fatty acids.

A saturated fat is a type of fat in which the fatty acid chains have all single bonds. A fat known as a glyceride is made of two kinds of smaller molecules: a short glycerol backbone and fatty acids that each contain a long linear or branched chain of carbon (C) atoms. Along the chain, some carbon atoms are linked by single bonds (-C-C-) and others are linked by double bonds (-C=C-). A double bond along the carbon chain can react with a pair of hydrogen atoms to change into a single -C-C- bond, with each H atom now bonded to one of the two C atoms. Glyceride fats without any carbon chain double bonds are called saturated because they are "saturated with" hydrogen atoms, having no double bonds available to react with more hydrogen.

An unsaturated fat is a fat or fatty acid in which there is at least one double bond within the fatty acid chain. A fatty acid chain is monounsaturated if it contains one double bond, and polyunsaturated if it contains more than one double bond.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hemp oil</span> Oil from hemp seeds

Hemp oil is oil obtained by pressing hemp seeds. Cold pressed, unrefined hemp oil is dark to clear light green in color, with a nutty flavor. The darker the color, the grassier the flavour. It should not be confused with hash oil, a tetrahydrocannabinol-containing oil made from the Cannabis flower.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grape seed oil</span> Liquid fat derived from grape seeds

Grape seed oil is a vegetable oil derived from the seeds of grapes. A by-product of the winemaking industry, it is typically used for edible applications.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cottonseed oil</span> Cooking oil

Cottonseed oil is cooking oil from the seeds of cotton plants of various species, mainly Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium herbaceum, that are grown for cotton fiber, animal feed, and oil.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oleic acid</span> Monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acid

Oleic acid is a fatty acid that occurs naturally in various animal and vegetable fats and oils. It is an odorless, colorless oil, although commercial samples may be yellowish. In chemical terms, oleic acid is classified as a monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acid, abbreviated with a lipid number of 18:1 cis-9, and a main product of Δ9-desaturase. It has the formula CH3−(CH2)7−CH=CH−(CH2)7−COOH. The name derives from the Latin word oleum, which means oil. It is the most common fatty acid in nature. The salts and esters of oleic acid are called oleates. It is a common component of oils, and thus occurs in many types of food, as well as in soap.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Omega-6 fatty acid</span> Fatty acids where the sixth bond is double

Omega-6 fatty acids are a family of polyunsaturated fatty acids that have in common a final carbon-carbon double bond in the n-6 position, that is, the sixth bond, counting from the methyl end.

In biochemistry and nutrition, a monounsaturated fat is a fat that contains a monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA), a subclass of fatty acid characterized by having a double bond in the fatty acid chain with all of the remaining carbon atoms being single-bonded. By contrast, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have more than one double bond.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peanut oil</span> Mild-tasting vegetable oil derived from peanuts

Peanut oil, also known as groundnut oil or arachis oil, is a vegetable oil derived from peanuts. The oil usually has a mild or neutral flavor but, if made with roasted peanuts, has a stronger peanut flavor and aroma. It is often used in American, Chinese, Indian, African and Southeast Asian cuisine, both for general cooking and in the case of roasted oil, for added flavor. Peanut oil has a high smoke point relative to many other cooking oils, so it is commonly used for frying foods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rice bran oil</span> Oil extracted from the hard outer brown layer of rice

Rice bran oil is the oil extracted from the hard outer brown layer of rice called bran. It is known for its high smoke point of 232 °C (450 °F) and mild flavor, making it suitable for high-temperature cooking methods such as stir frying and deep frying. It is popular as a cooking oil in East Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and Southeast Asia including India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Japan, Southern China and Malaysia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corn oil</span> Oil from the seeds of corn

Corn oil or maize oil (British) is oil extracted from the germ of corn (maize). Its main use is in cooking, where its high smoke point makes refined corn oil a valuable frying oil. It is also a key ingredient in some margarines. Corn oil is generally less expensive than most other types of vegetable oils.

The smoke point, also referred to as the burning point, is the temperature at which an oil or fat begins to produce a continuous bluish smoke that becomes clearly visible, dependent upon specific and defined conditions. Smoke point values can vary greatly, depending on factors such as the volume of oil utilized, the size of the container, the presence of air currents, the type and source of light as well as the quality of the oil and its acidity content, otherwise known as free fatty acid (FFA) content. The more FFA an oil contains, the quicker it will break down and start smoking. The lower the value of FFA, the higher the smoke point. However, the FFA content typically represents less than 1% of the total oil and consequently renders smoke point a poor indicator of the capacity of a fat or oil to withstand heat.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sunflower oil</span> Oil pressed from the seed of Helianthus annuus

Sunflower oil is the non-volatile oil pressed from the seeds of the sunflower. Sunflower oil is commonly used in food as a frying oil, and in cosmetic formulations as an emollient.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polyunsaturated fat</span> Type of fatty acid defined by molecular bonds

In biochemistry and nutrition, a polyunsaturated fat is a fat that contains a polyunsaturated fatty acid, which is a subclass of fatty acid characterized by a backbone with two or more carbon–carbon double bonds. Some polyunsaturated fatty acids are essentials. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are precursors to and are derived from polyunsaturated fats, which include drying oils.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rapeseed oil</span> Vegetable oil

Rapeseed oil is one of the oldest known vegetable oils. There are both edible and industrial forms produced from rapeseed, the seed of several cultivars of the plant family Brassicaceae. Historically, it was restricted as a food oil due to its content of erucic acid, which in laboratory studies was shown to be damaging to the cardiac muscle of laboratory animals in high quantities and which imparts a bitter taste, and glucosinolates, which made many parts of the plant less nutritious in animal feed. Rapeseed oil from standard cultivars can contain up to 54% erucic acid.

References

  1. ↑ "Dietary fats explained" . Retrieved August 5, 2018.
  2. ↑ Yanai H, Katsuyama H, Hamasaki H, et al. (2015). "Effects of Dietary Fat Intake on HDL Metabolism". J Clin Med Res. 7 (3): 145–9. doi:10.14740/jocmr2030w. PMC   4285059 . PMID   25584098.
  3. ↑ Clarke, R; Frost, C; Collins, R; et al. (1997). "Dietary lipids and blood cholesterol: quantitative meta-analysis of metabolic ward studies". BMJ. 314 (7074): 112–7. doi:10.1136/bmj.314.7074.112. PMC   2125600 . PMID   9006469.
  4. ↑ Mensink, RP; Zock, PL; Kester, AD; Katan, MB (2003). "Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trials". Am J Clin Nutr. 77 (5): 1146–55. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/77.5.1146 . PMID   12716665.
  5. ↑ Jakobsen, M. U; O'Reilly, E. J; Heitmann, B. L; et al. (2009). "Major types of dietary fat and risk of coronary heart disease: a pooled analysis of 11 cohort studies". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 89 (5): 1425–32. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2008.27124. PMC   2676998 . PMID   19211817.
  6. 1 2 Katan, Martijn B.; Mozaffarian, Dariush; Micha, Renata; Wallace, Sarah (2010). Katan, Martijn B. (ed.). "Effects on Coronary Heart Disease of Increasing Polyunsaturated Fat in Place of Saturated Fat: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials". PLOS Medicine. 7 (3): e1000252. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1000252 . PMC   2843598 . PMID   20351774.
  7. ↑ "Dietary fats: Know which types to choose". Mayo Clinic Staff. 2015.
  8. ↑ "Choose foods low in saturated fat". National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), NIH Publication No. 97-4064. 1997. Archived from the original on 2009-12-13. Retrieved 2009-09-28.
  9. ↑ Kabagambe, EK; Baylin, A; Ascherio, A & Campos, H (November 2005). "The Type of Oil Used for Cooking Is Associated with the Risk of Nonfatal Acute Myocardial Infarction in Costa Rica". Journal of Nutrition. 135 (11) (135 ed.): 2674–2679. doi: 10.1093/jn/135.11.2674 . PMID   16251629.
  10. ↑ Urry. Campbell Biology. Pearson.
  11. ↑ Sands, David C.; Morris, Cindy E.; Dratz, Edward A.; Pilgeram, Alice (2009). "Elevating optimal human nutrition to a central goal of plant breeding and production of plant-based foods". Plant Sci. 117 (5): 377–389. doi:10.1016/j.plantsci.2009.07.011. PMC   2866137 . PMID   20467463.
  12. ↑ Food and nutrition board, institute of medicine of the national academies (2005). Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients). National Academies Press. p.  423. ISBN   978-0-309-08537-3.
  13. ↑ Food and nutrition board, institute of medicine of the national academies (2005). Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients). National Academies Press. p.  504. ISBN   978-0-309-08537-3.[ permanent dead link ]
  14. ↑ "Trans fat: Avoid this cholesterol double whammy". Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (MFMER). Retrieved 2007-12-10.
  15. ↑ Mozaffarian, Dariush; Katan, Martijn B.; Ascherio, Alberto; et al. (2006). "Trans Fatty Acids and Cardiovascular Disease". New England Journal of Medicine. 354 (15): 1601–113. doi:10.1056/NEJMra054035. PMID   16611951.
  16. ↑ Willett, WC; Stampfer, MJ; Manson, JE; et al. (1993). "Intake of trans fatty acids and risk of coronary heart disease among women". Lancet. 341 (8845): 581–5. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(93)90350-P. PMID   8094827. S2CID   2616254.
  17. ↑ Hu, Frank B.; Stampfer, Meir J.; Manson, Joann E.; et al. (1997). "Dietary Fat Intake and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in Women". New England Journal of Medicine. 337 (21): 1491–9. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199711203372102 . PMID   9366580.
  18. ↑ Hayakawa, Kyoko; Linko, Yu-Yen; Linko, Pekka (2000). "The role of trans fatty acids in human nutrition". Starch - Stärke. 52 (6–7): 229–35. doi:10.1002/1521-379X(200007)52:6/7<229::AID-STAR229>3.0.CO;2-G.
  19. ↑ The Nurses' Health Study (NHS)
  20. ↑ "Final Determination Regarding Partially Hydrogenated Oils (Removing Trans Fat)". Food and Drug Administration . Retrieved March 29, 2019.
  21. ↑ Doureradjou, P.; Koner, Bidhan Chandra (2008). "Effect of Different Cooking Vessels on Heat Induced Lipid Peroxidation of Different Edible Oils". Journal of Food Biochemistry. 32 (6): 740–751. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-4514.2008.00195.x . ISSN   1745-4514.
  22. 1 2 Crosby (2018) Do Cooking Oils Present a Health Risk?
  23. ↑ Orna Izakson. "Oil right: choose wisely for heart-healthy cooking - Eating Right". E: The Environmental Magazine.
  24. 1 2 Bouchon, Pedro (2009). "Chapter 5 - Understanding Oil Absorption During Deep-Fat Frying". Advances in Food and Nutrition Research. 57: 209–34. doi:10.1016/S1043-4526(09)57005-2. ISBN   9780123744401. ISSN   1043-4526. PMID   19595388.
  25. ↑ De Marco, Elena; Savarese, Maria; Parisini, Cristina; Battimo, Ilaria; Falco, Salvatore; Sacchi, Raffaele (2007). "Frying performance of a sunflower/palm oil blend in comparison with pure palm oil" (PDF). European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology. 109 (3): 237–246. doi:10.1002/ejlt.200600192.[ dead link ]
  26. ↑ Che Man, YB; Liu, J.L.; Jamilah, B.; Rahman, R. Abdul (1999). "Quality changes of RBD palm olein, soybean oil and their blends during deep-fat frying". Journal of Food Lipids. 6 (3): 181–193. doi:10.1111/j.1745-4522.1999.tb00142.x.
  27. ↑ Matthäus, Bertrand (2007). "Use of palm oil for frying in comparison with other high-stability oils". European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology. 109 (4): 400–409. doi:10.1002/ejlt.200600294.
  28. ↑ Sundram, K; Sambanthamurthi, R; Tan, YA (2003). "Palm fruit chemistry and nutrition" (PDF). Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 12 (3): 355–62. PMID   14506001.
  29. ↑ "Smoke Points of Various Fats - Kitchen Notes - Cooking For Engineers". cookingforengineers.com. 2012. Retrieved July 3, 2012.
  30. 1 2 3 Boskou, Dimitrios (2010). "21 Frying Fats". Chemical and functional properties of food lipids. p. 429.
  31. ↑ Rossell, J.B. (1998). "Industrial frying process". Grasas y Aceites. 49 (3–4): 282–295. doi: 10.3989/gya.1998.v49.i3-4.729 .
  32. 1 2 3 4 Kochhar, S. Parkash; Henry, C. Jeya K. (2009-01-01). "Oxidative stability and shelf-life evaluation of selected culinary oils". International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 60 (Suppl 7): 289–296. doi:10.1080/09637480903103774. ISSN   1465-3478. PMID   19634067. S2CID   44352150.
  33. ↑ Mishra, Sundeep; Manchanda, S.C. (Feb 2012). "Cooking oils for heart health" (PDF). J Prev Cardiol. 1 (3): 123–131. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-08-14. Retrieved 2022-06-21– via Google Scholar.
  34. ↑ Kuo, T.M.; Gardner, H. (2002). Lipid Biotechnology. Taylor & Francis. p. 1. ISBN   9780824744182. LCCN   2001058440.
  35. ↑ The Lipid Handbook (2007), p. 4.
  36. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 "National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Release 28" (PDF). USDA.
  37. ↑ R.S. Guad; S.J. Surana; G.S. Talele; S.G. Talele; S.B. Gokhale (2006). Natural Excipients. Pragati Books Pvt. Ltd. ISBN   978-81-85790-60-2.
  38. 1 2 3 The Lipid Handbook (2007), pp. 71–73.
  39. 1 2 3 4 Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 329.
  40. ↑ The Lipid Handbook (2007), pp. 93.
  41. 1 2 3 4 Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 61.
  42. ↑ Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 172.
  43. 1 2 3 Warner, K.; Gupta, M. (2005). "Potato chip quality and frying oil stability of high oleic acid soybean oil". Journal of Food Science. 70 (6).
  44. ↑ The Lipid Handbook (2007), pp. 98.
  45. 1 2 Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 141.
  46. ↑ Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 180.
  47. ↑ Sundram, K; Sambanthamurthi, R; Tan, YA (2003). "Palm fruit chemistry and nutrition" (PDF). Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 12 (3): 355–62. PMID   14506001.
  48. 1 2 3 Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 303.
  49. ↑ Takeuchi, H.; Matsuo, T.; Tokuyama, K.; Shimomura, Y.; Suzuki, M. "Diet-induced thermogenesis is lower in rats fed a lard diet than in those fed a high oleic acid safflower oil diet, a safflower oil diet or a linseed oil diet". The Journal of Nutrition. 125 (4): 920.
  50. ↑ Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 293.
  51. 1 2 Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 148.
  52. ↑ "Fats and fatty acids".
  53. 1 2 Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 122.
  54. 1 2 3 Beck, Leslie (28 September 2015). "'Smoke point' matters when cooking with oil". Toronto, Canada: The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 11 April 2017.
  55. 1 2 3 Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 90.
  56. 1 2 3 Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 149.
  57. ↑ Marcus, Jacqueline B. (2013). Culinary Nutrition: The Science and Practice of Healthy Cooking. Academic Press. p. 61. ISBN   978-012-391882-6. Table 2-3 Smoke Points of Common Fats and Oils.
  58. ↑ "Smoking Points of Fats and Oils". What’s Cooking America.
  59. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 "Smoke Point of Oils". Baseline of Health. Jonbarron.org. 2012-04-17. Retrieved 2019-12-26.
  60. ↑ Marie Wong; Cecilia Requejo-Jackman; Allan Woolf (April 2010). "What is unrefined, extra virgin cold-pressed avocado oil?". Aocs.org. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
  61. 1 2 The Culinary Institute of America (2011). The Professional Chef (9th ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN   978-0-470-42135-2. OCLC 707248142.
  62. ↑ "Smoke Point of different Cooking Oils". Charts Bin. 2011.
  63. 1 2 Detwiler, S. B.; Markley, K. S. (1940). "Smoke, flash, and fire points of soybean and other vegetable oils". Oil & Soap. 17 (2): 39–40. doi:10.1007/BF02543003.
  64. 1 2 "Introducing Nutiva Organic Refined Coconut Oil". Nutiva. Archived from the original on 2015-02-14.
  65. ↑ Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 284.
  66. ↑ Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 214.
  67. ↑ "Mustard Seed Oil". Clovegarden.
  68. ↑ "Olive Oil Smoke Point" . Retrieved 2016-08-25.
  69. 1 2 3 Gray, S (June 2015). "Cooking with extra virgin olive oil" (PDF). ACNEM Journal. 34 (2): 8–12.
  70. ↑ (in Italian) Scheda tecnica dell'olio di palma bifrazionato PO 64.
  71. ↑ Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 234.
  72. ↑ Ranalli N, Andres SC, Califano AN (Jul 2017). "Dulce de leche‐like product enriched with emulsified pecan oil: Assessment of physicochemical characteristics, quality attributes, and shelf‐life". European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology. doi:10.1002/ejlt.201600377 . Retrieved 15 January 2021.
  73. 1 2 Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 121.
  74. ↑ "What is the "truth" about canola oil?". Spectrum Organics, Canola Oil Manufacturer. Archived from the original on April 13, 2014.
  75. ↑ Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 92.
  76. ↑ Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 153.
  77. ↑ "Organic unrefined sunflower oil" . Retrieved 18 December 2016.
  78. ↑ Ramadan, Mohamed (2020). Cold Pressed Oils: Green Technology, Bioactive Compounds, and Applications. Academic Press. p. 311. ISBN   9780128181898.
  79. ↑ F. D. Gunstone; D. Rousseau (2004). Rapeseed and canola oil: production, processing, properties and uses. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. p. 91. ISBN   0-8493-2364-9 . Retrieved 2011-01-17.
  80. ↑ Brown, Amy L. (2010). Understanding Food: Principles and Preparation. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing. p. 468. ISBN   0-538-73498-1 . Retrieved 2011-01-16. The smoke point of an oil depends primarily on its free fatty acid content (FFA) and molecular weight. Through repeated use, as in a deep fryer, the oil accumulates food residues or by-products of the cooking process, that lower its smoke point further. The values shown in the table must therefore be taken as approximate, and are not suitable for accurate or scientific use
  81. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Kodali, D.R. (ed.). Trans Fats Replacement Solutions. AOCS Press. p. 143. ISBN   978-0-9830791-5-6.
  82. ↑ A. G. Vereshagin and G. V. Novitskaya (1965) The triglyceride composition of linseed oil. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society 42, 970-974.
  83. ↑ Rossell, J.B. (1998). "Industrial frying process" (PDF). Grasas y Aceites. 49 (3–4): 282–295.
  84. ↑ National nutrient database for standard reference release 28. "Basic Report: 04511, Oil, safflower, salad or cooking, high oleic (primary safflower oil of commerce)". USDA.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)[ dead link ]
  85. ↑ "Smoke point of oils". Jonbarron.org. Retrieved April 10, 2017.
  86. ↑ National nutrient database for standard reference release 28. "Basic Report: 04510, Oil, safflower, salad or cooking, linoleic, (over 70%)". USDA.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)[ dead link ]
  87. 1 2 3
  88. ↑ Abidi, S. L.; Warner, K. (2001). "Molecular-Weight Distributions of Degradation Products in Selected Frying Oils". JAOCS. 78 (7).
  89. ↑ "Triglyceride composition of tea seed oil". doi:10.1002/jsfa.2740271206.
  90. ↑ National Research Council, 1976, Fat Content and Composition of Animal Products, Printing and Publishing Office, National Academy of Science, Washington, D.C., ISBN   0-309-02440-4; p. 203, online edition
  91. ↑ "Cooking Oil Smoke Points" . Retrieved January 3, 2011.
  92. ↑ "List of Abbreviations". The Journal of Nutrition. Retrieved April 18, 2017.
  93. ↑ "Thrive Culinary Algae Oil" . Retrieved 7 January 2019.
  94. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Anderson D. "Fatty acid composition of fats and oils" (PDF). Colorado Springs: University of Colorado, Department of Chemistry. Retrieved April 8, 2017.
  95. ↑ "NDL/FNIC Food Composition Database Home Page". United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. Retrieved May 21, 2013.
  96. ↑ "Basic Report: 04042, Oil, peanut, salad or cooking". USDA. Archived from the original on March 9, 2016. Retrieved 16 January 2015.
  97. ↑ "Oil, vegetable safflower, oleic". nutritiondata.com. Condé Nast. Retrieved 10 April 2017.
  98. ↑ "Oil, vegetable safflower, linoleic". nutritiondata.com. Condé Nast. Retrieved 10 April 2017.
  99. ↑ "Oil, vegetable, sunflower". nutritiondata.com. Condé Nast. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
  100. ↑ USDA Basic Report Cream, fluid, heavy whipping
  101. ↑ "Nutrition And Health". The Goose Fat Information Service.
  102. ↑ "Egg, yolk, raw, fresh". nutritiondata.com. Condé Nast. Retrieved 24 August 2009.
  103. ↑ "09038, Avocados, raw, California". National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 26. United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. Archived from the original on January 10, 2014. Retrieved 14 August 2014.
  104. 1 2 "How cooking oil is made" . Retrieved May 18, 2012.
  105. ↑ Martin, Geoffrey (1920). Animal and Vegetable Oils, Fats, & Waxes: Their Manufacture, Refining, and Analysis, including the Manufacture of Candles, Margarine, and Butter. Crosby Lockwood and Son. pp.  79-80.
  106. ↑ Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 236.
  107. ↑ US 110626,Bradley, Henry W.,"Improvement in compounds for culinary use",published 1871-01-03
  108. ↑ "Tips to avoid water waste and to require the preservation of hydro-resources". Natureba - Educação Ambiental. Retrieved 2007-09-05.
  109. ↑ "Grease Disposal Tips to Help the City's Environment". NYC Department of Environmental Protection. Retrieved 2007-08-05.
  110. ↑ "Production of biodiesel based on waste oils and/or waste fats from biogenic origin for use as fuel" (PDF). CDM - Executive Board. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2007-09-05.
  111. ↑ Murphy, Denis J. Plant lipids: biology, utilisation, and manipulation. Wiley-Blackwell, 2005, p. 117.
  112. ↑ Radich, Anthony Biodiesel Performance, Costs, and Use Archived 2022-06-26 at the Wayback Machine
  113. ↑ Brown Grease Feedstocks for Biodiesel Archived 2012-06-17 at the Wayback Machine . K. Shaine Tyson, National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Retrieved January 31, 2009
  114. ↑ Austin Ramzy (13 September 2011). "China Cracks Down on "Gutter Oil," a Substance Even Worse Than its Name". Time Inc. Retrieved 13 March 2016.
  115. ↑ Iraki XN (12 December 2014). "Thieves fry Kenya's power grid for fast food". Al Jazeera Media Network. Retrieved 13 March 2016.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.