Drinking culture

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The Merry Drinker (c. 1628-1630) by Frans Hals Frans Hals - The Merry Drinker - WGA11095.jpg
The Merry Drinker (c. 1628–1630) by Frans Hals

Drinking culture is the set of traditions and social behaviours that surround the consumption of alcoholic beverages as a recreational drug and social lubricant. Although alcoholic beverages and social attitudes toward drinking vary around the world, nearly every civilization has independently discovered the processes of brewing beer, fermenting wine, and distilling spirits, among other practices. [1]

Contents

Alcohol, a psychoactive substance with addictive properties and other effects, has been present in numerous societies over the centuries. [2] Drinking is documented in the Hebrew and Christian Bibles, [3] in the Qur'an, in Greek and Roman literature as old as Homer, in Confucius’ Analects , and in various forms of artistic expression throughout history.

Historical perspectives

Alcohol has played a significant role in human history. The production and consumption of alcoholic beverages date back to ancient civilizations. Since Neolithic times, societies and cultures around the world have made use of intoxicating substances, with alcohol as the most popular, featured in temple rituals for ~2,000 years. [4] In Mesopotamia, the world's oldest known recipe for beer-making can be traced back to 3200 BC, with related pictographs dated to 4000 BC. [4] Similarly, wine has ancient roots, with evidence of production in Jemdet Nasr in 3000 BC, [4] Georgia from around 6000 BC, and Iran from 5000 BC. [5] [6] These practices were not just culinary but often held religious and medicinal significance.

Drinking styles

Binge drinking

Binge drinking is defined as drinking to excess.

The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) defines binge drinking as a pattern of drinking alcohol that brings blood alcohol concentration (BAC) to 0.08 grams percent or above. For the typical adult, this pattern corresponds to consuming five or more drinks (men), or four or more drinks (women) in about two hours. [7] As tolerance builds, the person will need more drinks to achieve the same effect or feeling. [8] The excessive drinking can lead to alcoholism, a term describing the inability to control the intake of alcohol. [9]

The concept of a "binge" has been somewhat elastic over the years, implying consumption of alcohol far beyond that which is socially acceptable. In earlier decades, "going on a binge" meant drinking over the course of several days until one was no longer able to continue drinking. This usage is known to have entered the English language as late as 1854; it derives from an English dialectal word meaning to "soak" or to "fill a boat with water". ( OED , American Heritage Dictionary )

Drinking games

Speed drinking

Steven Petrosino achieving the Guinness World Record for speed drinking in June 1977 at the Gingerbreadman Pub in Carlisle, Pennsylvania Guinness beer record2.jpg
Steven Petrosino achieving the Guinness World Record for speed drinking in June 1977 at the Gingerbreadman Pub in Carlisle, Pennsylvania

Speed drinking or competitive drinking is the drinking of a small or moderate quantity of beer in the shortest period of time, without an intention of getting heavily intoxicated. Unlike binge drinking, its focus is on competition or the establishment of a record. Speed drinkers typically drink a light beer, such as lager, and they allow it to warm and lose its carbonation to shorten the drinking time.

Guinness World Records (1990 edition, p. 464) listed several records for speed drinking. Among these were:

Neither of these records had been defeated when Guinness World Records banned all alcohol-related records from their book in 1991.[ citation needed ]

Former Australian Prime Minister Bob Hawke held a record for the fastest consumption of a yard of ale. In 1954, while he was a student at Oxford University, he drank 2+1⁄2 imperial pints (1.4 litres) in 12 seconds. [11]

Social drinking

Social drinking, commonly used as a synonym for responsible drinking or moderate drinking, refers to casual drinking of alcoholic beverages in a social setting without an intent to become intoxicated. A social drinker is also defined as a person who only drinks alcohol during social events, such as parties, and does not drink while alone (e.g., at home). [12]

In many cultures, good news is often celebrated by a group sharing alcoholic drinks. For example, sparkling wine may be used to toast the bride at a wedding, and alcoholic drinks may be served celebrate a baby's birth. Buying someone an alcoholic drink is often considered a gesture of goodwill, an expression of gratitude, or to mark the resolution of a dispute.

Drinking etiquette

Reunion of gentlemen around a table in an interior, by Jacob van Schuppen Reunion de gentilhommes autour d une table dans un interieur van Schuppen.jpg
Reunion of gentlemen around a table in an interior, by Jacob van Schuppen

For the purposes of buying rounds of alcoholic drinks in English public houses, William Greaves, a retired London journalist, devised a set of etiquette guidelines as a Saturday morning essay in the defunct Today newspaper. Known as Greaves' Rules, the guidelines were based upon his long experience of pubs and rounds. [13] The rules were later recommissioned by The Daily Telegraph and published in that newspaper on November 20, 1993. Copies of the rules soon appeared in many pubs throughout the United Kingdom.

Kate Fox, a social anthropologist, came up with a similar idea in her book Watching the English , but concluded their rationale was the need to minimize the possibility of violence between drinking companions. [14]

When it is socially acceptable to drink differs around the world. For example, drinking at early times of the day is frowned upon in some countries, including Britain, Iceland, and the Czech Republic, whose drinkers limit themselves to the evening, some don't start until past midnight and stay out especially late. [15]

Though noon is often seen as earliest appropriate time of day to consume alcohol, especially on its own, there are some exceptions such as drinking Buck's Fizzes on Christmas Day morning. [16] In Germany, it is tradition to get a drink on Sunday morning, Frühschoppen, to commemorate when families would go to the pub after church. In the countries of Spain, France, Russia, and Germany, day drinking is more common. [15] Drinks served with breakfast or brunch, like a mimosa or bloody mary, are common in many cultures. [17] However, even in countries where day drinking is socially acceptable, it is restricted compared to the heavier periods of drinking recurrent during weekend days. [15]

Session drinking

Session drinking is a chiefly British and Irish term that refers to drinking a large quantity of beer during a "session" (i.e. a specific period of time) without becoming too heavily intoxicated. [18] A session is generally a social occasion.

A "session beer", such as a session bitter, is a beer that has a moderate or relatively low alcohol content.

Pub crawl

A pub crawl (sometimes called a bar tour, bar crawl or bar-hopping) is the act of visiting multiple pubs or bars in a single session. [19]

Vertical drinking

Vertical drinking means that all or most of the patrons in an establishment are standing while drinking. This is linked to faster rates of consumption, and can lead to tension and possibly violence as patrons attempt to maneuver around each other. [20]

Social and cultural significance

Drinking customs vary significantly across cultures. In many Western societies, raising a toast during celebrations or milestones is a common practice. In contrast, in Japanese culture, the practice of 'nomikai' – a drinking party among colleagues or friends – is prevalent, reflecting their communal approach to drinking. [21] Similarly, in some Native American societies, alcohol consumption has historically been limited and regulated through community norms. [22]

Sober curious

Sober curious is a cultural movement and lifestyle of practicing none or limited alcohol consumption that started spreading in the late 2010s.

Sober curiosity is often defined as having the option to question or change one's drinking habits, for mental or physical health reasons. [23] It may be practised in many ways, ranging from complete abstinence to thinking more about when and how much one actually wants to drink. [24]

Spiritual use

Most religions prohibit or advise against alcohol use. However, spiritual use of alcohol is found in some religions and schools with esoteric influences, including the Sufi Bektashi Order and Alevi Jem ceremonies, [25] in the Japanese religion Shinto, [26] by the new religious movement Thelema, in Vajrayana Buddhism, and in Vodou faith of Haiti.

Health perspectives

While moderate alcohol consumption is often cited for potential health benefits, such as reduced risk of heart disease, excessive drinking is linked to numerous health risks including liver disease, cardiovascular problems, and addiction. [27] The World Health Organization categorizes alcohol as a Group 1 carcinogen, [28] indicating its causal link to cancer. It is crucial to balance these perspectives to understand the full impact of alcohol on health.

Policy makers have often expressed concern over "drinking culture" due to negative health effects of excess alcohol consumption. Policy makers often focus especially on patterns of problem drinking. These patterns are often expressed in geographical terms, such as in national drinking habits. [5]

Geographic disparity

Understanding drinking in young people should be done through a "developmental" framework. [29] This would be referred to as a "whole system" approach to underage drinking, as it takes into account a particular adolescent's unique risk and protective factors—from genetics and personality characteristics to social and environmental factors.

As early as the eighth century, Saint Boniface was writing to Cuthbert, Archbishop of Canterbury, to report how "In your diocese, the vice of drunkenness is too frequent. This is an evil peculiar to pagans and to our race. Neither the Franks nor the Gauls nor the Lombards nor the Romans nor the Greeks commit it". [30] It is probable, however, that "the vice of drunkenness" was present in all European nations. The 16th-century Frenchman Rabelais wrote comedic and absurd satires illustrating his countrymen's drinking habits, and Saint Augustin used the example of a drunkard in Rome to illustrate certain spiritual principles.

Some cultures may have a higher tolerance for alcohol consumption, while others may stigmatize it. Cultural practices, traditions, and expectations regarding masculinity can influence drinking patterns among people. [31]

Drinking habits vary significantly across the globe. In many European countries, wine and beer are integral to the dining experience, reflecting a culture of moderate, meal-centric drinking. [32] Conversely, in countries like Russia, higher rates of hard liquor consumption are observed, which has been linked to social and health issues. Furthermore, some Islamic countries have religious prohibitions against alcohol, leading to markedly different drinking practices. [33]

Some studies have noted traditional, cultural differences between Northern and Southern Europe. A difference in perception may also account to some extent for historically noted cultural differences: Northern Europeans drink beer, which in the past was often of a low alcohol content (2.5% compared to today's 5%).[ dubious – discuss ] In pre-industrial society, beer was safer to drink than water[ dubious – discuss ], because it had been boiled and contained alcohol. Southern Europeans drink wine and fortified wines (10–20% alcohol by volume). Traditionally, wine was watered and honeyed; drinking full strength wine was considered barbaric in Republican Rome. Nor does binge drinking necessarily equate with substantially higher national averages of per capita/per annum litres of pure alcohol consumption. There is also a physical aspect to national differences worldwide, which has not yet been thoroughly studied, whereby some ethnic groups have a greater capacity for alcohol metabolization through the liver enzymes alcohol dehydrogenase and acetaldehyde dehydrogenase.[ citation needed ]

These varying capacities do not, however, avoid all health risks inherent in heavy alcohol consumption. Alcohol abuse is associated with a variety of negative health and safety outcomes. This is true no matter the individual's or the ethnic group's perceived ability to "handle alcohol". Persons who believe themselves immune to the effects of alcohol may often be the most at risk for health concerns and the most dangerous of all operating a vehicle.[ citation needed ]

"Chronic heavy drinkers display functional tolerance when they show few obvious signs of intoxication, even at high blood alcohol concentrations which in others would be incapacitating or even fatal. Because the drinker does not experience significant behavioral impairment as a result of drinking, tolerance may facilitate the consumption of increasing amounts of alcohol. This can result in physical dependence and alcohol-related organ damage." [34]

By country

Finland

Finland has one of the most significant drinking cultures in Europe, with the second highest rate of alcohol consumption in the Nordic countries. [35] Since the early 1960s, the total consumption of alcohol has quadrupled [36] and negative effects of alcohol have increased. [37] Intoxication is not seen as shameful, and is instead praised and seen as a sign of sociality. [38] [39]

One major aspect of modern Finnish alcohol culture is the concept of "Pantsdrunk" (kalsarikännit), referring to a drinking practice in which the drinker consumes drinks at home dressed in very little clothing, usually underwear, with no intention of going out.

Germany

Drinking culture is very prevalent in Germany, particularly with beer. As of 2013, Germans drink 28 gallons of beer per capita each year. [40] Alcoholism is also an issue, with one-fifth of the population being labeled as "hazardous drinkers" in a 2022 study. [41]

Islamic world

Alcoholic drinks are generally prohibited under Islamic thought, [42] with the Quran including several verses that admonish the consumption of khamr , an Arabic term meaning intoxicants that is interpreted to include most forms of alcohol and psychoactive drugs.

Islamic countries have low rates of alcohol consumption, and it is completely banned in several of them while strictly controlled in others (such as consumption being allowed only in private places or by non-Muslims). However, a minority of Muslims do drink and believe consuming alcohol is not Qur'anically forbidden, [43] [44] such as the Alevi Muslims of Turkey. [45] Muslim-majority countries produce a variety of regional distilled beverages such as arrack and rakı. There is a long tradition of viticulture in the Middle East, particularly in Egypt (where it is legal) and in Iran (where it is banned).

Korea

Korea's interest in creating its own alcohol came about during the Koryo Dynasty (946–943), when exposure to foreign cultures and the introduction of distilled water created the basis and technique for distilling a unique alcohol. [46]

Alcohol drinking in Korea helps create and form ties between family members and friends. Drinking is very present throughout traditional family rituals such as honoring ancestors. Aside from traditional holiday and family ritual drinking, alcohol consumption has modernized and become a major aspect of everyday socialization in Korean culture.

Russia

Alcohol consumption in Russia remains among the highest in the world. High volumes of alcohol consumption have serious negative effects on Russia's social fabric and bring political, economic and public health ramifications. Alcoholism has been a problem throughout the country's history because drinking is a pervasive, socially acceptable behavior in Russian society and alcohol has also been a major source of government revenue for centuries.

United States

The United States is ranked 39th in the world for alcohol consumption in 2024. [47] It is ranked 1st in alcohol misuse among females, with 10.4%. [48] The U.S., in the past, prohibited alcohol from being produced in the country. This notion is still prevalent in the country with the legal drinking age being 21, and a self reported abstinence rate of 38%. [49] Culture varies significantly by state, with northern states drinking more than southern states. [50]


See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcoholism</span> Problematic excessive alcohol consumption

Alcoholism is the continued drinking of alcohol despite it causing problems. Some definitions require evidence of dependence and withdrawal. Problematic use of alcohol has been mentioned in the earliest historical records, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated there were 283 million people with alcohol use disorders worldwide as of 2016. The term alcoholism was first coined in 1852, but alcoholism and alcoholic are stigmatizing and discourage seeking treatment, so clinical diagnostic terms such as alcohol use disorder or alcohol dependence are used instead.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol intoxication</span> Behavioural and physical changes due to the consumption of alcohol

Alcohol intoxication, also known in overdose as alcohol poisoning, commonly described as drunkenness or inebriation, is the behavior and physical effects caused by a recent consumption of alcohol. In addition to the toxicity of ethanol, the main psychoactive component of alcoholic beverages, other physiological symptoms may arise from the activity of acetaldehyde, a metabolite of alcohol. These effects may not arise until hours after ingestion and may contribute to the condition colloquially known as a hangover. The term intoxication is commonly used when large amount of alcohol is consumed along with physical symptoms and deleterious health effects.

The health effects of long-term alcohol consumption on health vary depending on the amount of ethanol consumed. Even light drinking poses health risks, but small amounts of alcohol may also have health benefits. Chronic heavy drinking causes severe health consequences which outweigh any potential benefits.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol advertising</span> Promotion of alcoholic beverages

Alcohol advertising is the promotion of alcoholic beverages by alcohol producers through a variety of media. Along with nicotine advertising, alcohol advertising is one of the most highly regulated forms of marketing. Some or all forms of alcohol advertising are banned in some countries. There have been some important studies about alcohol advertising published, such as J.P. Nelson's in 2000.

Alcohol education is the practice of disseminating disinformation about the effects of alcohol on health, as well as society and the family unit. It was introduced into the public schools by temperance organizations such as the Woman's Christian Temperance Union in the late 19th century. Initially, alcohol education focused on how the consumption of alcoholic beverages affected society, as well as the family unit. In the 1930s, this came to also incorporate education pertaining to alcohol's effects on health. For example, even light and moderate alcohol consumption increases cancer risk in individuals. Organizations such as the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism in the United States were founded to promulgate alcohol education alongside those of the temperance movement, such as the American Council on Alcohol Problems.

Alcohol has a number of effects on health. Short-term effects of alcohol consumption include intoxication and dehydration. Long-term effects of alcohol include changes in the metabolism of the liver and brain, several types of cancer and alcohol use disorder. Alcohol intoxication affects the brain, causing slurred speech, clumsiness, and delayed reflexes. There is an increased risk of developing an alcohol use disorder for teenagers while their brain is still developing. Adolescents who drink have a higher probability of injury including death.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Health effects of wine</span> Potential health effects resulting from drinking wine

The health effects of wine are mainly determined by its active ingredient – alcohol. Preliminary studies found that drinking small quantities of wine, particularly of red wine, may be associated with a decreased risk of cardiovascular diseases, cognitive decline, stroke, diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, and early death. Other studies found no such effects.

Recommendations for consumption of the drug alcohol vary from recommendations to be alcohol-free to daily or weekly drinking "safe limits" or maximum intakes. Many governmental agencies and organizations have issued guidelines. These recommendations concerning maximum intake are distinct from any legal restrictions, for example countries with drunk driving laws or countries that have prohibited alcohol. To varying degrees, these recommendations are also distinct from the scientific evidence, such as the short-term effects of alcohol consumption and long-term effects of alcohol consumption.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcoholic beverage</span> Drink with a substantial ethanol content

An alcoholic beverage is a drink that contains ethanol, a type of alcohol and is produced by fermentation of grains, fruits, or other sources of sugar. The consumption of alcoholic drinks, often referred to as "drinking", plays an important social role in many cultures. Alcoholic drinks are typically divided into three classes—beers, wines, and spirits—and typically their alcohol content is between 3% and 50%.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Binge drinking</span> Form of excessive alcohol intake

Binge drinking, or heavy episodic drinking, is drinking alcoholic beverages with an intention of becoming intoxicated by heavy consumption of alcohol over a short period of time, but definitions vary considerably.

Alcohol and sex deals with the effects of the consumption of alcohol on sexual behavior. The effects of alcohol are balanced between its suppressive effects on sexual physiology, which will decrease sexual activity, and its suppression of sexual inhibitions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol in Australia</span> Public health issue in Australia

Alcohol is commonly consumed and available at pubs and liquor stores in Australia – all of which are private enterprises. Spirits can be purchased at liquor stores and pubs, whereas most grocery stores do not sell them, although they may have separate liquor stores on their premises. Alcohol consumption is higher, according to WHO studies, than in most European countries and several Central Asian and African countries, although consumption is just as high in Australia as in North America. After tobacco, alcohol is the second leading preventable cause of death and hospitalisation in Australia.

Binge drinking is the practice of consuming excessive amounts of alcohol in a short period of time. Due to the idiosyncrasies of the human body, the exact amount of alcohol that would constitute binge drinking differs among individuals. The definitions of binge drinking are also nuanced across cultures and population subgroups. For example, many studies use gender-specific measures of binge drinking. The epidemiology of binge drinking likewise differs across cultures and population subgroups.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Caffeinated alcoholic drink</span> Drink containing both alcohol and caffeine

A caffeinated alcoholic drink is a drink that contains both alcohol and a significant amount of caffeine. Caffeine, a stimulant, masks some of the depressant effects of alcohol. However, in 2010 and 2011, this type of drink faced criticism for posing health risks to its drinkers. In some places there is a ban on caffeinated alcoholic drinks.

The legal drinking age varies from country to country. In the United States, the legal drinking age is currently 21. To curb excessive alcohol consumption by younger people, instead of raising the drinking age, other countries have raised the prices of alcohol beverages and encouraged the general public to drink less. Setting a legal drinking age of 21 is designed to discourage reckless alcohol consumption by youth, limiting consumption to those who are more mature, who can be expected to make reasonable and wise decisions when it comes to drinking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol (drug)</span> Active ingredient in fermented drinks

Alcohol, sometimes referred to by the chemical name ethanol, is a depressant drug found in fermented beverages such as beer, wine, and distilled spirit — in particular, rectified spirit. Ethanol is colloquially referred to as "alcohol" because it is the most prevalent alcohol in alcoholic beverages, but technically all alcoholic beverages contain several types of psychoactive alcohols, that are categorized as primary, secondary, or tertiary; Primary, and secondary alcohols, are oxidized to aldehydes, and ketones, respectively, while tertiary alcohols are generally resistant to oxidation; Ethanol is a primary alcohol that has unpleasant actions in the body, many of which are mediated by its toxic metabolite acetaldehyde. Less prevalent alcohols found in alcoholic beverages, are secondary, and tertiary alcohols. For example, the tertiary alcohol 2M2B which is up to 50 times more potent than ethanol and found in trace quantities in alcoholic beverages, has been synthesized and used as a designer drug. Alcoholic beverages are sometimes laced with toxic alcohols, such as methanol and isopropyl alcohol. A mild, brief exposure to isopropyl alcohol is unlikely to cause any serious harm, but many methanol poisoning incidents have occurred through history, since methanol is lethal even in small quantities, as little as 10–15 milliliters. Ethanol is used to treat methanol and ethylene glycol toxicity.

Alcohol-related brain damage alters both the structure and function of the brain as a result of the direct neurotoxic effects of alcohol intoxication or acute alcohol withdrawal. Increased alcohol intake is associated with damage to brain regions including the frontal lobe, limbic system, and cerebellum, with widespread cerebral atrophy, or brain shrinkage caused by neuron degeneration. This damage can be seen on neuroimaging scans.

Alcohol is a liquid form substance which contains ethyl alcohol that can cause harm and even damage to a person's DNA. "Alcohol consumption is recognized worldwide as a leading risk factor for disease, disability, and death" and is rated as the most used substance by adolescences. Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological changes, usually a time in a person life in which they go through puberty. Combining these transitional stages and the intake of alcohol can leave a number of consequences for an adolescent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol use among college students</span> Unhealthy alcohol drinking behaviors by college students

Many students attending colleges, universities, and other higher education institutions consume alcoholic beverages. The laws and social culture around this practice vary by country and institution type, and within an institution, some students may drink heavily whereas others may not drink at all. In the United States, drinking tends to be particularly associated with fraternities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alcohol in the United Kingdom</span>

Alcohol in the United Kingdom is legal to buy, sell and consume. Consumption rates within the country are high among the average of OECD nations however average among European countries but consistently ranks highest on binge drinking culture. An estimated 29 million people in the United Kingdom drank alcohol in 2017.

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  43. ↑ "Alcohol and Islam: An Overview". APA PsycNet. 1999-06-01. Retrieved 2020-11-23.
  44. ↑ "Nothing in the Quran Says Alcohol "is Haram": Saudi Author".
  45. ↑ Turkey's Alevi Muslims look to EU for protection from intolerance.
  46. ↑ woochang, shin (2008-04-24). "[alcohol story] You need to restore the 'disappeared' Korea Pearl alcohol ([술이야기]외래 술에 사라진 '한국 명주' 복원해야)". Sport Kyunghyang.
  47. ↑ "Alcohol Consumption by Country 2024". worldpopulationreview.com. Retrieved 2024-04-28.
  48. ↑ "Alcoholism by Country 2024". worldpopulationreview.com. Retrieved 2024-04-28.
  49. ↑ Olson, Steve; Gerstein, Dean R. (1985), "Drinking in America", Alcohol in America: Taking Action to Prevent Abuse, National Academies Press (US), retrieved 2024-04-28
  50. ↑ Kerr WC. Categorizing US state drinking practices and consumption trends. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2010 Jan;7(1):269-83. doi: 10.3390/ijerph7010269. Epub 2010 Jan 20. PMID: 20195444; PMCID: PMC2819787.

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