Luminous efficacy | |
---|---|
Common symbols | K |
SI unit | lm⋅W−1 |
In SI base units | cd⋅s3⋅kg−1⋅m−2 |
Dimension |
Luminous efficacy is a measure of how well a light source produces visible light. It is the ratio of luminous flux to power, measured in lumens per watt in the International System of Units (SI). Depending on context, the power can be either the radiant flux of the source's output, or it can be the total power (electric power, chemical energy, or others) consumed by the source. [1] [2] [3] Which sense of the term is intended must usually be inferred from the context, and is sometimes unclear. The former sense is sometimes called luminous efficacy of radiation, [4] and the latter luminous efficacy of a light source [5] or overall luminous efficacy. [6] [7]
Not all wavelengths of light are equally visible, or equally effective at stimulating human vision, due to the spectral sensitivity of the human eye; radiation in the infrared and ultraviolet parts of the spectrum is useless for illumination. The luminous efficacy of a source is the product of how well it converts energy to electromagnetic radiation, and how well the emitted radiation is detected by the human eye.
Luminous efficacy can be normalized by the maximum possible luminous efficacy to a dimensionless quantity called luminous efficiency. The distinction between efficacy and efficiency is not always carefully maintained in published sources, so it is not uncommon to see "efficiencies" expressed in lumens per watt, or "efficacies" expressed as a percentage.
Wavelengths of light outside of the visible spectrum are not useful for illumination because they cannot be seen by the human eye. Furthermore, the eye responds more to some wavelengths of light than others, even within the visible spectrum. This response of the eye is represented by the luminosity function. This is a standardized function which represents the response of a "typical" eye under bright conditions (photopic vision). One can also define a similar curve for dim conditions (scotopic vision). When neither is specified, photopic conditions are generally assumed.
Luminous efficacy of radiation measures the fraction of electromagnetic power which is useful for lighting. It is obtained by dividing the luminous flux by the radiant flux. [4] Light with wavelengths outside the visible spectrum reduces luminous efficacy, because it contributes to the radiant flux while the luminous flux of such light is zero. Wavelengths near the peak of the eye's response contribute more strongly than those near the edges.
Photopic luminous efficacy of radiation has a maximum possible value of 683.002 lm/W, for the case of monochromatic light at a wavelength of 555 nm (green). Scotopic luminous efficacy of radiation reaches a maximum of 1700 lm/W for monochromatic light at a wavelength of 507 nm.
Luminous efficacy (of radiation), denoted K, is defined as [4]
where
Type | Luminous efficacy of radiation (lm/W) | Luminous efficiency [note 1] |
---|---|---|
Tungsten light bulb, typical, 2800 K | 15 [9] | 2% |
Class M star (Antares, Betelgeuse), 3300 K | 30 | 4% |
Black body, 4000 K, ideal | 54.7 [note 2] | 8% |
Class G star (Sun, Capella), 5800 K | 93 [9] | 13.6% |
Black-body, 7000 K, ideal | 95 [note 2] | 14% |
Black-body, 5800 K, truncated to 400–700 nm (ideal "white" source) [note 3] | 251 [9] [note 4] [10] | 37% |
Black-body, 5800 K, truncated to ≥ 2% photopic sensitivity range [note 5] | 292 [10] | 43% |
Black-body, 2800 K, truncated to ≥ 2% photopic sensitivity range [note 5] | 299 [10] | 44% |
Black-body, 2800 K, truncated to ≥ 5% photopic sensitivity range [note 6] | 343 [10] | 50% |
Black-body, 5800 K, truncated to ≥ 5% photopic sensitivity range [note 6] | 348 [10] | 51% |
Monochromatic source at 540 THz | 683 (exact) | 99.9997% |
Ideal monochromatic source: 555 nm (in air) | 683.002 [11] | 100% |
Type | Luminous efficacy of radiation (lm/W) | Luminous efficiency [note 1] |
---|---|---|
Ideal monochromatic 507 nm source | 1699 [12] or 1700 [13] | 100% |
Artificial light sources are usually evaluated in terms of luminous efficacy of the source, also sometimes called wall-plug efficacy. This is the ratio between the total luminous flux emitted by a device and the total amount of input power (electrical, etc.) it consumes. The luminous efficacy of the source is a measure of the efficiency of the device with the output adjusted to account for the spectral response curve (the luminosity function). When expressed in dimensionless form (for example, as a fraction of the maximum possible luminous efficacy), this value may be called luminous efficiency of a source, overall luminous efficiency or lighting efficiency.
The main difference between the luminous efficacy of radiation and the luminous efficacy of a source is that the latter accounts for input energy that is lost as heat or otherwise exits the source as something other than electromagnetic radiation. Luminous efficacy of radiation is a property of the radiation emitted by a source. Luminous efficacy of a source is a property of the source as a whole.
The following table lists luminous efficacy of a source and efficiency for various light sources. Note that all lamps requiring electrical/electronic ballast are unless noted (see also voltage) listed without losses for that, reducing total efficiency.
Category | Type | Overall luminous efficacy (lm/W) | Overall luminous efficiency [note 1] |
---|---|---|---|
Combustion | Gas mantle | 1–2 [14] | 0.15–0.3% |
Incandescent | 15, 40, 100 W tungsten incandescent (230 V) | 8.0, 10.4, 13.8 [15] [16] [17] [18] | 1.2, 1.5, 2.0% |
5, 40, 100 W tungsten incandescent (120 V) | 5.0, 12.6, 17.5 [19] | 0.7, 1.8, 2.6% | |
Halogen incandescent | 100, 200, 500 W tungsten halogen (230 V) | 16.7, 17.6, 19.8 [20] [18] | 2.4, 2.6, 2.9% |
2.6 W tungsten halogen (5.2 V) | 19.2 [21] | 2.8% | |
Halogen-IR (120 V) | 17.7–24.5 [22] | 2.6–3.5% | |
Tungsten quartz halogen (12–24 V) | 24 | 3.5% | |
Photographic and projection lamps | 35 [23] | 5.1% | |
Light-emitting diode | LED screw base lamp (120 V) | 102 [24] [25] [26] | 14.9% |
5–16 W LED screw base lamp (230 V) | 75–212 [27] [28] [29] | 11–31% | |
21.5 W LED retrofit for T8 fluorescent tube (230 V) | 172 [30] | 25% | |
Theoretical limit for a white LED with phosphorescence color mixing | 260–300 [31] | 38.1–43.9% | |
Arc lamp | Carbon arc lamp | 2–7 [32] | 0.29–1.0% |
Xenon arc lamp | 30–90 [33] [34] [35] | 4.4–13.5% | |
Mercury-xenon arc lamp | 50–55 [33] | 7.3–8% | |
Ultra-high-pressure (UHP) mercury-vapor arc lamp, free mounted | 58–78 [36] | 8.5–11.4% | |
Ultra-high-pressure (UHP) mercury-vapor arc lamp, with reflector for projectors | 30–50 [37] | 4.4–7.3% | |
Fluorescent | 32 W T12 tube with magnetic ballast | 60 [38] | 9% |
9–32 W compact fluorescent (with ballast) | 46–75 [18] [39] [40] | 8–11.45% [41] | |
T8 tube with electronic ballast | 80–100 [38] | 12–15% | |
PL-S 11 W U-tube, excluding ballast loss | 82 [42] | 12% | |
T5 tube | 70–104.2 [43] [44] | 10–15.63% | |
70–150 W inductively-coupled electrodeless lighting system | 71–84 [45] | 10–12% | |
Gas discharge | 1400 W sulfur lamp | 100 [46] | 15% |
Metal-halide lamp | 65–115 [47] | 9.5–17% | |
High-pressure sodium lamp | 85–150 [18] | 12–22% | |
Low-pressure sodium lamp | 100–200 [18] [48] [49] [50] | 15–29% | |
Plasma display panel | 2–10 [51] | 0.3–1.5% | |
Cathodoluminescence | Electron-stimulated luminescence | 30–110 [52] [53] | 15% |
Ideal sources | Truncated 5800 K black-body [note 4] | 251 [9] | 37% |
Green light at 555 nm (maximum possible luminous efficacy by definition) | 683.002 [11] [54] | 100% |
Sources that depend on thermal emission from a solid filament, such as incandescent light bulbs, tend to have low overall efficacy because, as explained by Donald L. Klipstein, "An ideal thermal radiator produces visible light most efficiently at temperatures around 6300 °C (6600 K or 11,500 °F). Even at this high temperature, a lot of the radiation is either infrared or ultraviolet, and the theoretical luminous [efficacy] is 95 lumens per watt. No substance is solid and usable as a light bulb filament at temperatures anywhere close to this. The surface of the sun is not quite that hot." [23] At temperatures where the tungsten filament of an ordinary light bulb remains solid (below 3683 kelvin), most of its emission is in the infrared. [23]
Quantity | Unit | Dimension [nb 1] | Notes | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Name | Symbol [nb 2] | Name | Symbol | ||
Luminous energy | Qv [nb 3] | lumen second | lm⋅s | T⋅J | The lumen second is sometimes called the talbot. |
Luminous flux, luminous power | Φ v [nb 3] | lumen (= candela steradian) | lm (= cd⋅sr) | J | Luminous energy per unit time |
Luminous intensity | Iv | candela (= lumen per steradian) | cd (= lm/sr) | J | Luminous flux per unit solid angle |
Luminance | Lv | candela per square metre | cd/m2 (= lm/(sr⋅m2)) | L−2⋅J | Luminous flux per unit solid angle per unit projected source area. The candela per square metre is sometimes called the nit . |
Illuminance | Ev | lux (= lumen per square metre) | lx (= lm/m2) | L−2⋅J | Luminous flux incident on a surface |
Luminous exitance, luminous emittance | Mv | lumen per square metre | lm/m2 | L−2⋅J | Luminous flux emitted from a surface |
Luminous exposure | Hv | lux second | lx⋅s | L−2⋅T⋅J | Time-integrated illuminance |
Luminous energy density | ωv | lumen second per cubic metre | lm⋅s/m3 | L−3⋅T⋅J | |
Luminous efficacy (of radiation) | K | lumen per watt | lm/W | M−1⋅L−2⋅T3⋅J | Ratio of luminous flux to radiant flux |
Luminous efficacy (of a source) | η [nb 3] | lumen per watt | lm/W | M−1⋅L−2⋅T3⋅J | Ratio of luminous flux to power consumption |
Luminous efficiency, luminous coefficient | V | 1 | Luminous efficacy normalized by the maximum possible efficacy | ||
See also: |
The candela is the unit of luminous intensity in the International System of Units (SI). It measures luminous power per unit solid angle emitted by a light source in a particular direction. Luminous intensity is analogous to radiant intensity, but instead of simply adding up the contributions of every wavelength of light in the source's spectrum, the contribution of each wavelength is weighted by the luminous efficiency function, the model of the sensitivity of the human eye to different wavelengths, standardized by the CIE and ISO. A common wax candle emits light with a luminous intensity of roughly one candela. If emission in some directions is blocked by an opaque barrier, the emission would still be approximately one candela in the directions that are not obscured.
Luminance is a photometric measure of the luminous intensity per unit area of light travelling in a given direction. It describes the amount of light that passes through, is emitted from, or is reflected from a particular area, and falls within a given solid angle.
Radiometry is a set of techniques for measuring electromagnetic radiation, including visible light. Radiometric techniques in optics characterize the distribution of the radiation's power in space, as opposed to photometric techniques, which characterize the light's interaction with the human eye. The fundamental difference between radiometry and photometry is that radiometry gives the entire optical radiation spectrum, while photometry is limited to the visible spectrum. Radiometry is distinct from quantum techniques such as photon counting.
A luminous efficiency function or luminosity function represents the average spectral sensitivity of human visual perception of light. It is based on subjective judgements of which of a pair of different-colored lights is brighter, to describe relative sensitivity to light of different wavelengths. It is not an absolute reference to any particular individual, but is a standard observer representation of visual sensitivity of theoretical human eye. It is valuable as a baseline for experimental purposes, and in colorimetry. Different luminous efficiency functions apply under different lighting conditions, varying from photopic in brightly lit conditions through mesopic to scotopic under low lighting conditions. When not specified, the luminous efficiency function generally refers to the photopic luminous efficiency function.
In photometry, luminous intensity is a measure of the wavelength-weighted power emitted by a light source in a particular direction per unit solid angle, based on the luminosity function, a standardized model of the sensitivity of the human eye. The SI unit of luminous intensity is the candela (cd), an SI base unit.
Photometry is a branch of optics that deals with the measurement of light in terms of its perceived brightness to the human eye. It is concerned with quantifying the amount of light that is emitted, transmitted, or received by an object or a system.
In optical physics, transmittance of the surface of a material is its effectiveness in transmitting radiant energy. It is the fraction of incident electromagnetic power that is transmitted through a sample, in contrast to the transmission coefficient, which is the ratio of the transmitted to incident electric field.
In radiometry, radiance is the radiant flux emitted, reflected, transmitted or received by a given surface, per unit solid angle per unit projected area. Radiance is used to characterize diffuse emission and reflection of electromagnetic radiation, and to quantify emission of neutrinos and other particles. The SI unit of radiance is the watt per steradian per square metre. It is a directional quantity: the radiance of a surface depends on the direction from which it is being observed.
In photometry, luminous flux or luminous power is the measure of the perceived power of light. It differs from radiant flux, the measure of the total power of electromagnetic radiation, in that luminous flux is adjusted to reflect the varying sensitivity of the human eye to different wavelengths of light.
In photometry, illuminance is the total luminous flux incident on a surface, per unit area. It is a measure of how much the incident light illuminates the surface, wavelength-weighted by the luminosity function to correlate with human brightness perception. Similarly, luminous emittance is the luminous flux per unit area emitted from a surface. Luminous emittance is also known as luminous exitance.
The lumen is the unit of luminous flux, a measure of the perceived power of visible light emitted by a source, in the International System of Units (SI). Luminous flux differs from power in that radiant flux includes all electromagnetic waves emitted, while luminous flux is weighted according to a model of the human eye's sensitivity to various wavelengths; this weighting is standardized by the CIE and ISO. One lux is one lumen per square metre.
In radiometry, radiant intensity is the radiant flux emitted, reflected, transmitted or received, per unit solid angle, and spectral intensity is the radiant intensity per unit frequency or wavelength, depending on whether the spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength. These are directional quantities. The SI unit of radiant intensity is the watt per steradian, while that of spectral intensity in frequency is the watt per steradian per hertz and that of spectral intensity in wavelength is the watt per steradian per metre —commonly the watt per steradian per nanometre. Radiant intensity is distinct from irradiance and radiant exitance, which are often called intensity in branches of physics other than radiometry. In radio-frequency engineering, radiant intensity is sometimes called radiation intensity.
In radiometry, photometry, and color science, a spectral power distribution (SPD) measurement describes the power per unit area per unit wavelength of an illumination. More generally, the term spectral power distribution can refer to the concentration, as a function of wavelength, of any radiometric or photometric quantity.
Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) designates the spectral range of solar radiation from 400 to 700 nanometers that photosynthetic organisms are able to use in the process of photosynthesis. This spectral region corresponds more or less with the range of light visible to the human eye. Photons at shorter wavelengths tend to be so energetic that they can be damaging to cells and tissues, but are mostly filtered out by the ozone layer in the stratosphere. Photons at longer wavelengths do not carry enough energy to allow photosynthesis to take place.
Photopic vision is the vision of the eye under well-lit conditions (luminance levels from 10 to 108 cd/m2). In humans and many other animals, photopic vision allows color perception, mediated by cone cells, and a significantly higher visual acuity and temporal resolution than available with scotopic vision.
In photometry, luminous energy is the perceived energy of light. This is sometimes called the quantity of light. Luminous energy is not the same as radiant energy, the corresponding objective physical quantity. This is because the human eye can only see light in the visible spectrum and has different sensitivities to light of different wavelengths within the spectrum. When adapted for bright conditions, the eye is most sensitive to light at a wavelength of 555 nm. Light with a given amount of radiant energy will have more luminous energy if the wavelength is 555 nm than if the wavelength is longer or shorter. Light whose wavelength is well outside the visible spectrum has a luminous energy of zero, regardless of the amount of radiant energy present.
In radiometry, radiant flux or radiant power is the radiant energy emitted, reflected, transmitted, or received per unit time, and spectral flux or spectral power is the radiant flux per unit frequency or wavelength, depending on whether the spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength. The SI unit of radiant flux is the watt (W), one joule per second, while that of spectral flux in frequency is the watt per hertz and that of spectral flux in wavelength is the watt per metre —commonly the watt per nanometre.
Mesopic vision, sometimes also called twilight vision, is a combination of photopic and scotopic vision under low-light conditions. Mesopic levels range approximately from 0.01 to 3.0 cd/m2 in luminance. Most nighttime outdoor and street lighting conditions are in the mesopic range.
Energy conversion efficiency (η) is the ratio between the useful output of an energy conversion machine and the input, in energy terms. The input, as well as the useful output may be chemical, electric power, mechanical work, light (radiation), or heat. The resulting value, η (eta), ranges between 0 and 1.
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) produce light by the recombination of electrons and electron holes in a semiconductor, a process called "electroluminescence". The wavelength of the light produced depends on the energy band gap of the semiconductors used. Since these materials have a high index of refraction, design features of the devices such as special optical coatings and die shape are required to efficiently emit light. A LED is a long-lived light source, but certain mechanisms can cause slow loss of efficiency of the device or sudden failure. The wavelength of the light emitted is a function of the band gap of the semiconductor material used; materials such as gallium arsenide, and others, with various trace doping elements, are used to produce different colors of light. Another type of LED uses a quantum dot which can have its properties and wavelength adjusted by its size. Light-emitting diodes are widely used in indicator and display functions, and white LEDs are displacing other technologies for general illumination purposes.
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)If the lamp emits all radiation at 555 nm (where Vλ = 1), the luminous efficacy will be of about 680 lm W−1, the theoretical maximum value. The lamp efficacy will be 26 and 73 lm W−1, when the whole light is emitted at 450 and 650 nm respectively. The luminous coefficient is luminous efficiency expressed as a value between zero and one, with one corresponding to an efficacy of 683 lm W−1.