National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases

Last updated
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases
AbbreviationNIDDK
FormationAugust 15, 1950
TypeU.S. Government Agency
Legal statusActive
Headquarters Bethesda, Maryland
Region served
Flag of the United States.svg  United States
Official language
English
Director
 Griffin P. Rodgers
Affiliations United States Public Health Service
Website niddk.nih.gov

The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) is part of the United States National Institutes of Health, which in turn is part of the Department of Health and Human Services. NIDDK is approximately the fifth-largest of the 27 NIH institutes. [1] The institute's mission is to support research, training, and communication with the public in the topic areas of "diabetes and other endocrine and metabolic diseases; digestive diseases, nutritional disorders, and obesity; and kidney, urologic, and hematologic diseases". [2] As of 2021, the Director of the institute is Griffin P. Rodgers, who assumed the position on an acting basis in 2006 and on a permanent basis in 2007. [3]

Contents

Mission

The mission of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) is to conduct and support medical research and research training and to disseminate science-based information on diabetes and other endocrine and metabolic diseases; digestive diseases, nutritional disorders, and obesity; and kidney, urological, and hematologic diseases, to improve people's health and quality of life. [4] [5]

History

The institute that would become NIDDK was established in 1947 as the Experimental Biology and Medicine Institute, subsequently incorporated in 1950 by President Harry S Truman into the National Institute of Arthritis and Metabolic Diseases. The name of the institute was changed in 1972 to National Institute of Arthritis, Metabolism, and Digestive Diseases, again in 1981 to National Institute of Arthritis, Diabetes, and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, and to its present name in 1986 [2] following the creation of a separate National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS). [6]

Past directors

Directors from 1950 - present [7]

PortraitDirectorTook officeLeft office
Henry Sebrell Jr.png William H. Sebrell Jr. August 15, 1950October 1, 1950
Noimage.svg Russell M. Wilder March 6, 1951June 30, 1953
Floyd S. Doft.jpg Floyd S. Daft October 1, 1953May 3, 1962
Noimage.svg G. Donald Whedon November 23, 1962September 30, 1981
Noimage.svg Lester B. Salans June 17, 1982June 30, 1984
Mortimer B. Lipsett.jpg Mortimer B. Lipsett January 7, 1985September 4, 1986
Noimage.svg Phillip Gorden September 5, 1986November 14, 1999
Noimage.svg Allen M. Spiegel November 15, 1999March 3, 2006
Rodgers NIDDK.jpg Griffin P. Rodgers April 1, 2007Present

Programs

The NIDDK intramural research program is divided into ten branches that perform basic and clinical research at locations in Bethesda, Maryland, and Phoenix, Arizona. [2]

The extramural research program is divided into three divisions: Diabetes, Endocrinology, and Metabolic Diseases; Digestive Diseases and Nutrition; and Kidney, Urologic, and Hematologic Diseases.[ citation needed ]

The NIDDK Office of the Director also administrates two notable programs: the Office of Minority Health Research Coordination, established to investigate disparities in health outcomes for minority groups, and the Office of Obesity Research, which organizes research into obesity and metabolic diseases.

The institute also conducts public health awareness campaigns on common, underdiagnosed, undertreated diseases within its purview. [2]

The NIDDK also offers opportunities for students to become involved in research, including the Short-Term Research Experience for Underrepresented Persons (STEP-UP) program, which is currently led by program director Robert Rivers since 2014. [8]

Central Repository

In 2003, NIDDK established a Central Repository to share biological samples and research data with the research community. The three components—the Data, Biosample, and Genetic Repositories—accept submissions of database archives, biological specimens, and blood and DNA samples, respectively, and are responsible for proper storage, maintenance, and distribution of requested materials to qualified researchers. [9]

NIDDK legislative chronology [2]

December 11, 1947—The Experimental Biology and Medicine Institute was established under Section 202 of Public Law (P.L.) 78—410.

August 15, 1950—The Omnibus Medical Research Act (P.L. 81—692) established the NIAMD to "... conduct researches relating to the cause, prevention, and methods of diagnosis and treatment of arthritis and rheumatism and other metabolic diseases, to assist and foster such researches and other activities by public and private agencies, and promote the coordination of all such researches, and to provide training in matters relating to such disease..." Section 431 also authorized the U.S. Surgeon General to establish a national advisory council.

May 19, 1972—President Richard M. Nixon signed P.L. 92–305 to re-emphasize digestive diseases research by changing the name of the institute to the National Institute of Arthritis, Metabolism, and Digestive Diseases (NIAMDD) and by designating a digestive diseases committee within the institute's National Advisory Council.

July 23, 1974—The National Diabetes Mellitus Research and Education Act (P.L. 93—354) was signed. The National Commission on Diabetes, authorized by this act, was chartered on September 17, 1974. The act authorized diabetes research and training centers, and an intergovernmental diabetes coordinating committee that included representatives from the NIAMDD and six other NIH Institutes.

January 1975—The National Arthritis Act of 1974 (P.L. 93—640) was signed into law to further research, education, and training in the field of connective tissue diseases. The act authorized the creation of a national commission, centers for research and training in arthritis and rheumatic diseases, a data bank, and an overall plan to investigate the epidemiology, etiology, control, and prevention of these disorders.

October 1976—The Arthritis, Diabetes, and Digestive Diseases Amendments of 1976 (P.L. 94—562) established the National Diabetes Advisory Board, charged with advising Congress and the Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) Secretary on implementing the Long-Range Plan to Combat Diabetes developed by the National Commission on Diabetes. The law also established the National Commission on Digestive Diseases to investigate the incidence, duration, mortality rates, and social and economic impact of digestive diseases.

December 1980—Title II of the Health Programs Extension Act of 1980, P.L. 96-538, changed the institute's name to the National Institute of Arthritis, Diabetes, and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. The Act also established the National Digestive Diseases Advisory Board. The law authorized the National Diabetes Information Clearinghouse, the Diabetes Data Group, and the National Digestive Diseases Information and Education Clearinghouse. In addition, it reauthorized advisory boards for arthritis and diabetes research.

November 20, 1985—The Health Research Extension Act of 1985 (P.L. 99–158) changed the institute's name to the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. The act also established the National Kidney and Urologic Diseases Advisory Board. The law gave parallel special authorities to all Institute operating divisions, including authorization of the National Kidney and Urologic Diseases Information Clearinghouse; National Kidney, Urologic, and Hematologic Diseases Coordinating Committee; National Kidney and Urologic Diseases Data System; National Digestive Diseases Data System; Kidney and Urologic Diseases Research Centers; and Digestive Diseases Research Centers.

June 10, 1993—The NIH Revitalization Act of 1993 (P.L. 103–43) established the NIDDK as the lead Institute in nutritional disorders and obesity, including the formation of a research and training centers program on nutritional disorders and obesity. The act also provided for the directors of the National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institute on Aging, National Institute of Dental Research, and the NIDDK to expand and intensify research and related programs concerning osteoporosis, Paget's disease, and related bone disorders.

July 25, 1997—A House report accompanying H.R. 2264 and Senate report with S. 1061, FY 1998 appropriations bills for Labor/HHS/Education, urged NIH and NIDDK to establish a diabetes research working group to develop a comprehensive plan for NIH-funded diabetes research that would recommend future initiatives and directions. Dr. C. Ronald Kahn, diabetes research working group chairman, presented "Conquering Diabetes, A Strategic Plan for the 21st Century" to the Congress on March 23, 1999.

August 5, 1997—The Balanced Budget Act of 1997 (P.L. 105–33), as immediately amended by the Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997 (P.L. 105–34), established a Special Statutory Funding Program for Type 1 Diabetes Research (now Section 330B of the Public Health Service Act). This legislation provided $30 million per year for FY 1998 through FY 2002. (The program has been extended and has had funding increased in subsequent years.) This funding program augments regularly appropriated funds HHS receives for diabetes research through the Labor-HHS-Education appropriations committees. The NIDDK, through authority granted by the HHS Secretary, has a leadership role in planning, administering, and evaluating the allocation of these funds. In parallel with the Special Statutory Funding Program for Type 1 Diabetes Research, P.L. 105-33 also established the Special Diabetes Program for Indians, which is administered by the Indian Health Service.

October 17, 2000—Title IV, Section 402 of the Children's Health Act of 2000 (P.L. 106–310) entitled "Reducing the Burden of Diabetes Among Children and Youth" specified that the NIH conduct long-term epidemiology studies, support regional clinical research centers, and provide a national prevention effort relative to type 1 diabetes.

December 21, 2000—The FY 2001 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 106–554) increased funding for the Special Statutory Funding Program for Type 1 Diabetes Research to $100 million per year for FY 2001 and FY 2002, and extended the program at a level of $100 million for FY 2003.

December 17, 2002—The Public Health Service Act amendment relating to diabetes research (P.L. 107–360) extended and augmented the Special Statutory Funding Program for Type 1 Diabetes Research. The law provided $150 million per year for type 1 diabetes research from FY 2004 through FY 2008.

December 8, 2003—Title VII, Subtitle D, Section 733 of the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act of 2003 (P.L. 108–173) authorized the NIDDK to conduct a pancreatic islet transplantation clinical trial that includes Medicare beneficiaries. Medicare would cover routine costs, transplantation, and appropriate related items and services for Medicare beneficiaries enrolled in the trial.

October 25, 2004—The Pancreatic Islet Cell Transplantation Act of 2004 (P.L. 108–362) amended the Public Health Service Act to increase the supply of pancreatic islet cells for research and provide better coordination of federal efforts and information on islet cell transplantation. A provision of this law specified that the annual reports prepared by the NIDDK-led Diabetes Mellitus Interagency Coordinating Committee include an assessment of the federal activities and programs related to pancreatic islet transplantation.

September 2004—The reports accompanying the FY 2005 Senate and House Labor, HHS, and Education appropriations bills (Senate Report 108-345 and House Report108-636) called on the NIH and HHS to establish a national commission on digestive diseases to develop a long-range research plan. The NIH director subsequently established the National Commission on Digestive Diseases under NIDDK leadership in August 2005.

December 29, 2007—The Medicare, Medicaid, and SCHIP Extension Act of 2007 (P.L. 110–173) extended funding for the Special Statutory Funding Program for Type 1 Diabetes Research. The law provided $150 million for type 1 diabetes research in FY 2009.

July 15, 2008—The Medicare Improvements for Patients and Providers Act of 2008 (P.L. 110–275) extended funding for the Special Statutory Funding Program for Type 1 Diabetes Research. The law provided $150 million per year for type 1 diabetes research in FY 2010 and FY 2011.

February 17, 2009—President Barack Obama signed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) of 2009 (P.L. 111–5), providing the NIH with a two-year infusion of funding. The NIDDK developed a plan to use its portion of the ARRA funds to meet the stimulus goals set forth in the Recovery Act. This funding supported a range of biomedical research efforts across the institute's research mission.

June 15, 2010—H. Res. 1444, a bipartisan resolution recognizing the 60th anniversary of the NIDDK, was introduced.

December 15, 2010—The Medicare and Medicaid Extenders Act of 2010 (P.L. 111–309) extended funding for the Special Statutory Funding Program for Type 1 Diabetes Research. The law provided $150 million per year for type 1 diabetes research in FY 2012 and FY 2013.

January 2, 2013—The American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 (P.L. 112–240) extended funding for the Special Statutory Funding Program for Type 1 Diabetes Research. The law provided $150 million for type 1 diabetes research in FY 2014.

April 1, 2014—The Protecting Access to Medicare Act of 2014 (P.L. 113–93) extended the Special Statutory Funding Program for Type 1 Diabetes Research. The law provided $150 million for type 1 diabetes research in FY 2015.

Notable NIDDK Intramural Scientists Elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences

Laboratory of Chemical Physics

Ad Bax, [10] G. Marius Clore, [11] [12] William Eaton, [13] [14] William Hagins (1928–2012), [15] Robert Tycko, [16] Attila Szabo, [17] Robert Zwanzig (1928–2014) [18]

Laboratory of Molecular Biology

David Davies (1927–2016), [19] Gary Felsenfeld, [20] Martin Gellert, [21] Terrell Hill (1917–2014), [22] [23] Kiyoshi Mizuuchi, [24] Wei Yang [25]

Laboratory of Biochemistry and Genetics

Herb Tabor, [26] Reed Wickner [27]

Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry

John W. Daly (1933–2008), [28] Bernhard Witkop (1917–2010) [29]

Laboratory of Nutrition and Endocrinology

Martin Rodbell (1925–1998) [30] [31]

Clinical Endocrinology Branch

Ed Rall (1920–2008) [32]

Metabolic Diseases Branch

Gerald Auerbach (1927–1991) [33] [34]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Institutes of Health</span> US government medical research agency

The National Institutes of Health, commonly referred to as NIH, is the primary agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical and public health research. It was founded in the late 1880s and is now part of the United States Department of Health and Human Services. Many NIH facilities are located in Bethesda, Maryland, and other nearby suburbs of the Washington metropolitan area, with other primary facilities in the Research Triangle Park in North Carolina and smaller satellite facilities located around the United States. The NIH conducts its own scientific research through the NIH Intramural Research Program (IRP) and provides major biomedical research funding to non-NIH research facilities through its Extramural Research Program.

The National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS) is one of the institutes and centers that make up the National Institutes of Health, an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS).

The National Digestive Diseases Information Clearinghouse (NDDIC) is an information dissemination service of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). The NIDDK is part of the National Institutes of Health, which is under the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

The Hematologic Diseases Information Service is an information dissemination service of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). The NIDDK is part of the National Institutes of Health, which is part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The Hematologic Diseases Information Service is a part of the NIDDK's Division of Kidney, Urologic, and Hematologic Diseases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Diabetes Education Program</span>

National Diabetes Education Program (NDEP) was started by the NIH and CDC in 1997 to educate the public about the risks of diabetes. NDEP's goal was to reduce the illness and death caused by diabetes and its complications. To help meet this goal, NDEP provided free diabetes education information to the public. NDEP ended in 2019.

The Rare Diseases Clinical Research Network (RDCRN) is an initiative of the Office of Rare Diseases Research (ORDR). RDCRN is funded by the ORDR, the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences and collaborating institute centers. The RDCRN is designed to advance medical research on rare diseases by providing support for clinical studies and facilitating collaboration, study enrollment and data sharing. Through the RDCRN consortia, physician scientists and their multidisciplinary teams work together with patient advocacy groups to study more than 200 rare diseases at sites across the nation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Griffin P. Rodgers</span> American hematologist

Griffin P. Rodgers is the director of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, one of the 27 institutes that make up the United States National Institutes of Health. He is also the Chief of the institute's Molecular and Clinical Hematology Branch and is known for contributions to research and therapy for sickle cell anemia.

Attila Szabo is a biophysicist who is a Distinguished Investigator and Section Chief of the Theoretical Biophysical Chemistry Section in the Laboratory of Chemical Physics at the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, part of the United States National Institutes of Health.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">William Eaton (scientist)</span> American biophysicist

William Allen Eaton is a biophysical chemist who is a NIH Distinguished Investigator, Chief of the Section on Biophysical Chemistry, and Chief of the Laboratory of Chemical Physics at the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, one of the 20 Institutes of the United States National Institutes of Health.

Penny Gordon-Larsen is an internationally recognized obesity researcher. In July of 2022, she was named Vice Chancellor for Research at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. She served as Interim Vice Chancellor for Research from March 2022 - July 2023. She is the Carla Smith Chamblee Distinguished Professor of Global Nutrition at the UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health, where she served as associate dean for research from 2018 to 2022. She is also a Faculty Fellow at the Carolina Population Center. Dr. Gordon-Larsen’s NIH-funded research portfolio focuses on individual-, household-, and community-level susceptibility to obesity and its cardiometabolic consequences, and her work ranges from molecular and genetic to environmental and societal-level factors. She was the 2015 president of The Obesity Society and a member of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases Clinical Obesity Research Panel (CORP).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Catherine Cowie</span> American epidemiologist

Catherine Christine Cowie is an American epidemiologist. She is a program director and senior advisor at the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Katherine McJunkin</span> American biologist

Katherine McJunkin is an American biologist. She is the Stadtman Investigator in the Section On Regulatory RNAs, Laboratory of Cellular and Developmental Biology at the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Judith Fradkin</span> American physician-scientist

Judith E. Fradkin is an American physician-scientist. She was the director of the Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology, and Metabolic Diseases at the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases from 2000 to 2018.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carole A. Bewley</span> American scientist

Carole Ann Bewley is an American chemist. She is a senior investigator and Chief of the Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry at the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Bewley researches secondary metabolites and basic principles involved in protein-carbohydrate interactions and how these can be exploited to engineer therapeutics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deborah M. Hinton</span> American microbiologist

Deborah Meetze Hinton is an American microbiologist. She is a senior investigator and chief of the gene expression and regulation section in the laboratory of cell and molecular biology at the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Herbert Tabor</span> American biochemist (1918–2020)

Herbert Tabor was an American biochemist and physician-scientist who specialized in the function of polyamines and their role in human health and disease. Tabor was a principal investigator at the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases where he was Chief of the Laboratory of Biochemical Pharmacology. He was the editor-in-chief of the Journal of Biological Chemistry from 1971 to 2010.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Christine Hunter</span> American clinical psychologist and military officer

Christine M. Hunter is an American clinical psychologist and a uniformed service officer. She is the acting National Institutes of Health (NIH) associate director for behavioral and social sciences research and acting director of the NIH Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research. Hunter was an active duty officer in the U.S. Air Force from 1996 to 2006. She is a captain in the U.S. Public Health Service Commissioned Corps.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Constance Tom Noguchi</span> Molecular biologist

Constance Tom Noguchi is a research physicist, Chief of the Molecular Cell Biology Section, and Dean of the Foundation for Advanced Education in the Sciences (FAES) Graduate School at the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Noguchi studies the underlying genetics, metabolism, and treatment of sickle cell disease and of erythropoietin and its effects on metabolism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nancy Goldman Nossal</span> American molecular biologist

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References

  1. ↑ "About National Institute of Diabetes & Digestive & Kidney Diseases". National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. National Institutes of Health. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 "National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases". The NIH Almanac. National Institutes of Health. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  3. ↑ "Director's Biography". National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. National Institutes of Health. Retrieved 22 September 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  4. ↑ "Mission & Vision". www.niddk.nih.gov. Archived from the original on 2014-01-04.
  5. ↑ "National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)". National Institutes of Health. 9 July 2015. Retrieved 9 October 2020.
  6. ↑ "National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases". The NIH Almanac. National Institutes of Health. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  7. ↑ "Past Directors". nih.gov.
  8. ↑ "Short-Term Research Experience for Underrepresented Persons (STEP-UP) | NIDDK". National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Retrieved 2020-06-28.
  9. ↑ "NIDDK Central Repository". National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. National Institutes of Health. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  10. ↑ "Adriaan Bax". Member Directory. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  11. ↑ "G. Marius Clore". Member Directory. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  12. ↑ Samoray C (2016). "Profile of Marius Clore". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 113 (45): 12604–12606. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1616528113 . PMC   5111653 . PMID   27799541.
  13. ↑ "William A. Eaton". Member Directory. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  14. ↑ Mossman K (2009). "Profile of William A. Eaton, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (23): 9135–9137. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0904546106 . PMC   2695067 . PMID   19497861 . Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  15. ↑ "W.A. Hagins". Member Directory. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  16. ↑ "2020 NAS Election". www.nasonline.org.
  17. ↑ "Attila Szabo". Member Directory. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  18. ↑ "Robert Zwanzig". Member Directory. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  19. ↑ "David R. Davies". Member Directory. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  20. ↑ "Gary Felsenfeld". Member Directory. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  21. ↑ "Martin Gellert". Member Directory. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  22. ↑ "Terrell L. Hill". Member Directory. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  23. ↑ "Terrell L. Hill Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences" (PDF). Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  24. ↑ "Kiyoshi Mizuuchi". Member Directory. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  25. ↑ "Wei Yang". Member Directory. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  26. ↑ "Herbert Tabor". Member Directory. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  27. ↑ "Reed B. Wickner". Member Directory. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  28. ↑ "John W. Daly". Member Directory. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  29. ↑ "Bernhard Witkop". Member Directory. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  30. ↑ "Martin Rodbell". Member Directory. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  31. ↑ "1994 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine" . Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  32. ↑ "J.E. Rall". Member Directory. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  33. ↑ "Gerald D. Aurbach". Member Directory. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  34. ↑ "Gerald Donald Auerbach Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences" (PDF). Retrieved 17 December 2016.

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