2000s in Tunisia

Last updated
2000s in Tunisia
Other decades
1980s | 1990s | 2000s | 2010s | 2020s

A historic snapshot of Tunisia during the first decade of the 2000s is presented. Since then, however, Tunisia has been transformed politically and socially by the Tunisian Revolution, which commenced in early 2011. Quickly Ben 'Ali was overthrown and left the country, his political party the Rassemblement Constitutionnel Démocratique was disbanded. Over the next several years the government structure of Tunisia has been gradually reconstituted by democratic means. [1] [2]

Contents

Ben 'Ali regime

Ben 'Ali in 1987 had constitutionally removed from office the former leader Habib Bourguiba (1903-2000, President 1957–1987). Ben 'Ali himself then won election as the new president. [3] The change in leadership "took place in complete calm" and the new regime inherited "a well-established party nomenclatura". [4] In 2004 Ben'Ali was reelected for a five-year term, with a reported 94.5% of the vote. Elected also were 189 members of the Majlis al-Nuwaab or Chamber of Deputies, whose term was also five years. In addition, there was a Chamber of Advisors composed of 126 members with six-year terms; of these 85 are selected by: government subdivisions (e.g., municipalities), professional associations, and trade unions (yet 14 union members boycotted the process); the other 41 members were appointed by the President. The court system remained a combination of French Civil Law and Islamic law. [5] The autocratic rule of Ben 'Ali was extended in 2009 by his reelection, reportedly at 99.44%. [6]

Tunis central district. Tunis1.jpg
Tunis central district.
Tunis pedestrian mall with central district landmark. Tunis Bourguiba.jpg
Tunis pedestrian mall with central district landmark.

A widely supported human rights movement had emerged, initiated by trade unionists, lawyers, and journalists, in addition to being joined by aggrieved Islamists. Tunisia's political institutions, however, often appeared to remain fixed in an authoritarian past. As reported in 2001, the government's response to calls for reform had been house arrests and prison. [7] The government refused to cease its repression of the Islamist opposition party, due to prior terrorist activity. Generally, the Ben 'Ali regime's governance of the country included fostering a political climate considered rigid, from time to time using objectionable police methods to repress dissent. [8] Before becoming president Ben 'Ali had been "a police and security specialist" who during his military career once led the Gendarmerie National. [9]

In foreign affairs, Tunisia continued its close ties to the West. Nonetheless, the Arab League secretariat, which had moved to Tunis from Cairo in 1979, before Ben 'Ali's presidency, remained until 1991 when it relocated back to Cairo. An association agreement with the European Union, signed in 1995, was scheduled to move Tunisia toward full free trade with the EU by 2008. [10] Following the 2001 al-Qaeda attacks on the United States, Tunisia stood with the west against terrorism. Within the Maghreb, efforts continued to form a regional unity with Algeria, Morocco, Libya, and Mauritania, in the Arab Maghreb Union. Yet for Tunisia, "over 90 percent of its trade [was] with Europe, most of it with France." [11] From the perspective of the first decade of the 21st century, Tunisia pursued a moderate strategy in its foreign relations, actively associated with the west, yet nurturing its ties to the developing world. [12]

In managing the economy the Ben 'Ali regime was said to have mostly "met with success" yet it was a success "built on the repressive institutions and personality cult" of an earlier era. [13] "Within the regional Maghrebi context, Tunisia has been relatively efficient in instituting economic reforms, and its economy was the strongest in terms of growth, stability, and integration into a wider global market." A favorable factor was the motivated "entrepreneurial middle class". [14] [15] Although many Tunisians disliked the regime's authoritarian repression, in compensation there was the government's ability to develop the country. "Tunisia's strong economy throughout most of the Ben 'Ali era helped to neutralize political opposition." [16] Yet under Ben 'Ali, the modernizing privatization of state enterprises became corrupted at its root, benefitting insiders and family members. Thereafter the corruption in the regime multiplied and became notorious. [17]

Society and business

Tunis, the capital city, had a population of about 700,000, out of Tunisia's total of nearly 10 million. The second city of Sfax, a Mediterranean port to the south, a commercial and industrial center, numbered approximately 250,000. The population growth rate measured as births per female had fallen from 7 (1960s) to 2 (2007). Life expectancy was female 75, male 72. Required education was eight years. The religion composition was: Muslim 98%, with 1% Christian, and 1% Jewish and other. The official language continued as Arabic, with French also spoken particularly in commercial dealings, and with less than 2% Berber. Literacy by recent definition included all over 15 years; overall it was 74%, male 83% and female 65%. In 2006, 7.3 million mobile phones were in use and 1.3 million Tunisians were on the internet. There were 26 television stations and 29 radio stations. [5] [18]

Tunis at night. Tunis.png
Tunis at night.

Over half the population was considered urban, with agricultural workers being about 30% of the total. Between 1988 and 1998 the economy more than doubled. Unemployment in 2000 was about 15.6%, and in 2006 about 13.9%. Over 300,000 Tunisians were reported to be residing in France during 1994. [19] [20] Left out of the recent prosperity were many rural and urban poor, including small businesses facing the world market. [21]

The business community was diverse. The nation's domestic economy was based primarily on light industry (food processing, textiles, footwear, agribusiness, mining commodities, construction materials) and on agriculture (olives, olive oil, grains (wheat and barley), tomatoes, citrus, sugar beets, dates, almonds, figs, vegetables, grapes, beef dairy), as well as livestock (sheep, goats) and fishing. Other sectors included the petroleum industry and mining (phosphates, iron, lead, zinc, salt). Tunisia was self-sufficient in oil, but not in natural gas. Exports in aggregate were sent to France 29%, Italy 20%, Germany 9%, Spain 6%, Libya 5%, U.S.A. 4%. Imports arrived from France 25%, Italy 22%, Germany 10%, Spain 5%. [5] A very significant portion was generated by tourism. [20] On average five million tourists were visiting each year, and "one in eight Tunisians depended, directly or indirectly, on [the tourist industry] for their livelihoods". [22]

The monetary unit remained the dinar, at about 1.33 per dollar U.S.A. in 2000 (the dinar was then maintaining a fairly constant rate). Inflation was estimated at 4.5% in 2006. Tunisia's Gross Domestic Product (G.D.P.) was composed of approximately 12.5% agriculture, 33.1% industry, and 54.4% services. The economy grew at 5% per year during the 1990s (the best in North Africa), but hit a 15-year low of 1.9% in 2002 (due to drought and a decline in tourism following world terrorist attacks). It regained a 5% rate for 2003–2005, and was said to be 4%-5% for 2006. Tunisia's per capita annual income was approximately 8,900 U.S.A. dollars in 2006. [20] [5]

The face of the countryside changes markedly as one moves from north to south. In the north and central coast, orchards and fields predominate; while in the central plains, pasturage. An overview of Tunisian land use would apportion arable land at 17%-19%, with forest and woodland 4%, permanent crops 13%, irrigated lands at 2.4%; about 20% is used for pasture. There are limited fresh water resources. In the south the environment grows increasingly arid, until eventually reaching the Sahara desert borderlands. Roads total about 20,000 km., two-thirds being paved, with most of the unpaved roads lying in the desert south. [5]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tunisia</span> Country in North Africa

Tunisia, officially the Republic of Tunisia, is the northernmost country in Africa. It is a part of the Maghreb region of North Africa, bordered by Algeria to the west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. It features the archaeological sites of Carthage dating back to the 9th century BC, as well as the Great Mosque of Kairouan. Known for its ancient architecture, souks, and blue coasts, it covers 163,610 km2 (63,170 sq mi), and has a population of 12.1 million. It contains the eastern end of the Atlas Mountains and the northern reaches of the Sahara desert; much of its remaining territory is arable land. Its 1,300 km (810 mi) of coastline includes the African conjunction of the western and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Basin. Tunisia is home to Africa's northernmost point, Cape Angela. Located on the northeastern coast, Tunis is the capital and largest city in the country. Tunisia is named after Tunis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Tunisia</span> Aspect of history

The present day Republic of Tunisia, al-Jumhuriyyah at-Tunisiyyah, is situated in Northern Africa. Geographically situated between Libya to the east, Algeria to the west and the Mediterranean Sea to the north. Tunis is the capital and the largest city ; it is near the ancient site of the city of Carthage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Habib Bourguiba</span> President of Tunisia from 1957 to 1987

Habib Bourguiba was a Tunisian lawyer, nationalist leader and statesman who led the country from 1956 to 1957 as the prime minister of the Kingdom of Tunisia (1956–1957) then as the first president of Tunisia (1957–1987). Prior to his presidency, he led the nation to independence from France, ending the 75-year-old protectorate and earning the title of "Supreme Combatant".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Islam in Tunisia</span> Religion in Tunisia

Islam is the official state religion in Tunisia. According to the United States CIA, 99.1% of its adherents are Sunni Muslims. The constitution of Tunisia states that the country's “religion is Islam”, the government is the “guardian of religion”, and requires that the president be Muslim. The predominant madhhab in the country is the Maliki school. The Tunisian island of Djerba is home to a population of Ibadi Muslims.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arab Islamic Republic</span> Proposed unification of Tunisia and Libya

The Arab Islamic Republic was a proposed unification of Tunisia and Libya in 1974, agreed upon by Libyan head of state Muammar Gaddafi and Tunisian President Habib Bourguiba. Additional countries—Morocco and Algeria—were later included in the proposal, which was never implemented.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tunisians</span> Citizens and nationals of Tunisia

Tunisians are the citizens and nationals of Tunisia in North Africa, who speak Tunisian Arabic and share a common Tunisian culture and identity. In addition to the approximately 12 million residents in Tunisia, a Tunisian diaspora has been established with modern migration, particularly in Western Europe, namely France, Italy and Germany. The vast majority of Tunisians are Arabs who adhere to Sunni Islam.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">University of Ez-Zitouna</span> University in Tunisia

Ez-Zitouna University is a public ancient medieval university in Tunis, Tunisia. The university originates in the Al-Zaytuna Mosque, founded at the end of the 7th century or in the early 8th century, which developed into a major Islamic centre of learning in North Africa. It consists of the Higher Institute of Theology and the Higher Institute of Islamic Civilisation in Tunis and a research institution, the Center of Islamic Studies, in Kairouan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Beylik of Tunis</span> North African monarchy (1705–1881)

The Beylik of Tunis was a largely autonomous beylik of the Ottoman Empire located in present-day Tunisia. It was ruled by the Husainid dynasty from 1705 until the establishment of the French protectorate of Tunisia in 1881. The term beylik refers to the monarch, who was called the Bey of Tunis. Under the protectorate, the institution of the Beylik was retained nominally, with the Husainids remaining as largely symbolic sovereigns.

The Socialist Destourian Party was the ruling political party of Tunisia from 1964 to 1988. Bahi Ladgham was the first Prime Minister from the party and Hédi Baccouche was the last. It was founded on 22 October 1964 and disbanded on 27 February 1988. Habib Bourgiba was the first president of the Socialist Destourian Party from 1964 to 1987. He was succeeded by Zine El Abidine Ben Ali from 1987 to 1988.

The New Constitutional Liberal Party, most commonly known as Neo Destour, was a Tunisian political party founded in 1934 in Dar Ayed, the house of independence activist Ahmed Ayed, by a group of Tunisian nationalist politicians during the French protectorate. It originated from a split with the Destour party.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Algeria–Tunisia relations</span> Bilateral relations

Algeria and the Tunisia are both predominantly Muslim nations in North Africa. Both countries have historic dynasties primarily focused in Algiers and Tunis that became specialized in piracy and global trade. Eventually these dynasties fell under the influence of the French in the 19th century. Both remained under French control until Tunisian independence became official in 1956 and Algeria became independent after the conclusion of the Algerian War in 1962. Since independence both countries have had periods of antagonism over issues such as border security and terrorism, however it appears that both countries are trending towards a positive relationship. The Algerian-Tunisian border is around 1034 km (642 mi) long and was officially agreed upon in 1960. Both countries are members of the African Union, Arab League, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, Union for the Mediterranean and the United Nations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of modern Tunisia</span> Aspect of history

In its modern history, Tunisia is a sovereign republic, officially called the Republic of Tunisia. Tunisia has over ten million citizens, almost all of Arab-Berber descent. The Mediterranean Sea is to the north and east, Libya to the southeast, and Algeria to the west. Tunis is the capital and the largest city ; it is located near the ancient site of the city of Carthage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of early Islamic Tunisia</span>

The History of early Islamic Tunisia opens with the arrival of the Arabs who brought their language and the religion of Islam, and its calendar. The Arab conquest followed strategy designed by the Umayyad Caliphate regarding its long-term conflict with the Byzantine Empire. The native Berbers eventually converted to Islam. They might have seen some similarities between themselves and the Arabs, in similar cognate culture, such as familiarity with a pastoral way of life. The first local Islamic ruling house, the Aghlabids, consisted primarily of rule by leading members of this Arab tribe. Fundamental elements of Islamic civilization were established. Although accepting Islam, many Berbers nonetheless resisted rule by the Arabs, establishing the Rustamid kingdom following the Kharijite revolt. Next in Ifriqiya (Tunisia) arose the Shia Fatimids, inspired by a few immigrants from the east yet consisting for the most part of Ifriqiya Berbers. The Fatimids later expanded their rule east, through conquest by Berber armies of Egypt, and established their caliphate there which came to include Syria and the Hejaz.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Tunisia under French rule</span> Aspect of history

The history of Tunisia under French rule started in 1881 with the establishment of the French protectorate and ended in 1956 with Tunisian independence. The French presence in Tunisia came five decades after their occupation of neighboring Algeria. Both of these lands had been associated with the Ottoman Empire for three centuries, yet each had long since attained political autonomy. Before the French arrived, the Bey of Tunisia had begun a process of modern reforms, but financial difficulties mounted, resulting in debt. A commission of European creditors then took over the finances. After the French conquest of Tunisia the French government assumed Tunisia's international obligations. Major developments and improvements were undertaken by the French in several areas, including transport and infrastructure, industry, the financial system, public health, administration, and education. Although these developments were welcome, nonetheless French businesses and citizens were clearly being favored over Tunisians. Their ancient national sense was early expressed in speech and in print; political organization followed. The independence movement was already active before World War I, and continued to gain strength against mixed French opposition. Its ultimate aim was achieved in 1956.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">French protectorate of Tunisia</span> 1881–1956 monarchy in Northern Africa

The French protectorate of Tunisia, officially the Regency of Tunis and commonly referred to as simply French Tunisia, was established in 1881, during the French colonial Empire era, and lasted until Tunisian independence in 1956.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tunisian Revolution</span> 2010–2011 revolution that overthrew President Ben Ali

The Tunisian Revolution was an intensive 28-day campaign of civil resistance. It included a series of street demonstrations which took place in Tunisia, and led to the ousting of longtime president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali in January 2011. It eventually led to a thorough democratization of the country and to free and democratic elections, which had led to people believing it was the only successful movement in the Arab Spring.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Afek Tounes</span> Political party in Tunisia

Afek Tounes is a centre-right political party in Tunisia. Its program is liberal, focusing on secularism and civil liberties. The party mainly appealed to intellectuals and the upper class.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ottoman Tunisia</span> Semi-autonomous state affiliated with the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Tunisia, also known as the Regency of Tunis, refers to the Ottoman presence in Ifriqiya from the 16th to 19th century, when Tunis was officially integrated into the Ottoman Empire as the Eyalet of Tunis. Ottoman presence in the Maghreb began with the takeover of Algiers in 1516 by the Ottoman Turkish corsair and beylerbey Aruj, eventually expanding across the entire region except for Morocco. The first Ottoman conquest of Tunis occurred in 1534 under the command of Khayr al-Din Barbarossa, the younger brother of Aruj, who was the Kapudan Pasha of the Ottoman Fleet during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. However, it was not until the final Ottoman reconquest of Tunis from Spain in 1574 that the Turks permanently acquired the former territories of Hafsid Tunisia, retaining it until the French occupation of Tunisia in 1881.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tunisian bread riots</span>

The Tunisian bread riots were a series of violent demonstrations in Tunisia that occurred from December 1983 to January 1984, triggered by a rise in the price of bread due to an IMF-imposed austerity program. President Habib Bourguiba declared a state of emergency and the riots were put down by force. Over 100 rioters died. The regime was weakened by the upheavals and the aftermath of food riots. Three years later General Zine El Abidine Ben Ali seized power in a coup.

References

  1. ↑ Nouri Gana, "Collaborative Revolutionism" pp. 1-31, in The Making of the Tunisian Revolution. Contexts, architects, prospects (Edinburgh University 2013), edited by Nouri Gana.
  2. ↑ Cf., Joseph Abadi, Tunisia since the Arab Conquest (Reading UK: Ithaca Press 2013), pp. 544-545.
  3. ↑ Kenneth J. Perkins, History of Modern Tunisia (Cambridge University 2004) pp. 175, 185).
  4. ↑ Andrew Borowiec, Modern Tunisia. A democratic apprenticeship (Westport: Praeger 1998) p. 131 (quotes).
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 The World Factbook on "Tunisia" (accessed commencing 2006).
  6. ↑ Kenneth Perkins, "Playing the Islamic card: the use and abuse of Religion in Tunisian politics" pp. 58-80, at p. 73, in Nouri Gana (2013).
  7. ↑ Moncef M. Khaddar, "Tunisia" at 848-850, 849-850, in Joel Krieger (ed.), Oxford Companion to Politics of the World (2001).
  8. ↑ Abadi, Tunisia since then Arab Conquest (2013) pp. 508-511, 512-515
  9. ↑ Perkins, A History of Modern Tunisia (2004) pp. 175, 209. On political repression of the Ben Ali regime: pp. 194, 197, 198, 201-202, 210.
  10. ↑ Khaddar, "Tunisia" at 849 (2001) re Arab League, European Union.
  11. ↑ Borowiec, Modern Tunisia (1998), p. 134 (trade quote).
  12. ↑ Cf., Abadi, Tunisia since then Arab Conquest (2013) pp. 515-530; terrorism 516, 523; Maghreb 516-518; Europe 520-526; USA 516, 526-529.
  13. ↑ Khaddar, "Tunisia" pp. 849, 850.
  14. ↑ Abadi, Tunisia since the Arab Conquest (2013) p. 532.
  15. ↑ Cf., Georgie Anne Geyer, Tunisia. A journey through a country that works (London: Stacy International 2003).
  16. ↑ Perkins, History of Modern Tunisia (2004) p. 202.
  17. ↑ Emma C. Murphy, "Under the Emperor's Neoliberal clothes! Why the International Financial Institutions got it wrong in Tunisia" pp. 35-57, at pp. 46-50, in Nouri Gana (2013).
  18. ↑ Khaddar, "Tunisia" p. 848.
  19. ↑ Hermida, Alfred (1994). The Americana Annual 1994. New York: Grolier. pp. 544–545.
  20. 1 2 3 Ryan, Rose (2000). The Americana Annual 2000. p. 548.
  21. ↑ Khaddar, "Tunisia" p. 849 (2001).
  22. ↑ Perkins, A History of Modern Tunisia (2004) p. 203.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.