Agri-environmental measures

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Grass strips act as erosion control devices and flood expansion zones. They limit the input of pesticides and fertilizers to watercourses. Extensively grazed and/or mowed, they play a major role in bank protection and biological corridors, provided they are not polluted or too isolated from other natural landscape features. Rijeka Sturba.JPG
Grass strips act as erosion control devices and flood expansion zones. They limit the input of pesticides and fertilizers to watercourses. Extensively grazed and/or mowed, they play a major role in bank protection and biological corridors, provided they are not polluted or too isolated from other natural landscape features.

Agri-environmental measures (MAE) are measures introduced in the European Union [1] as part of the Common Agricultural Policy, in return for payments to voluntary farmers. They are one response [2] to the growing concerns of the public, consumers, local authorities and certain elected representatives about the ecological impact of the intensification of agriculture, which developed strongly throughout the 20th century, relying on crop mechanization, chemical inputs, off-farm breeding and, more recently, biotechnologies integrating the transfer of genes from one species to another (transgenesis). [3]

Contents

Objectives

These measures are mainly aimed at protecting rural landscapes, watercourses, flora, and fauna.

These credits are generally for maintenance (management), not investment ( they finance hedge management, not hedge planting). They are governed by the European "agri-environmental" regulation of June 30, 1992, which resulted from the reform of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in May 1992. Each member state has developed its subsidiary version. [4]

In France, the 2007-2013 programming period classifies MAEs into nine schemes:

  1. the Prime Herbagère Agroenvironnementale or PHAE
  2. the rotational MAE
  3. aid for input-saving polyculture-breeding forage systems (SFEI)
  4. aid for conversion to organic farming (CAB)
  5. support for maintaining organic farming (MAB)
  6. protection of endangered breeds (PRM)
  7. Preservation of endangered plant resources (PRV)
  8. aid for beekeeping
  9. MAE territorialized (MAET)

In the case of MAET, only certain types of measures are eligible, and only on certain territories; for example, in Natura 2000 areas, in regional nature parks, in areas vulnerable to erosion, etc. (they are said to be territorialized). These measures can be financed by the State via the DIREN, or by the Water Agencies (protection of water catchment areas, etc.), but also by local authorities (regional councils, general councils, etc.). They are co-financed up to 55% by the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD).

Examples of agri-environmental measures (MAE)

MAET and biodiversity

From 2011 to 2013, the following are eligible as "biodiversity areas (BA)":

The Prefect, by prefectural decree, may add to this list certain types of permanent grassland or extensive grazing areas of particular interest for the protection of biodiversity (wet meadows or coastal meadows, for example). [5]

Assessments, evaluations

Despite Natura 2000 programs and over 20 years of agri-environmental subsidies, across the northern hemisphere as a whole, most agricultural biodiversity indicators show worrying problems, including in most areas where agri-environmental measures have been applied since the 1990s. [5] This is also true of France, where we are witnessing a trivialization of flora and fauna, with a sharp reduction in biodiversity. These measures have slowed the phenomenon, but not stopped it.

Qualitative and financial assessments are difficult to establish [6] for several reasons:

In the United States; a tradition going back more than 70 years

In the United States, agricultural subsidies (and even crop insurance [7] ) are much more subject to cross-compliance than in Europe. This environmental conditionality has been an integral part of American agricultural policy since the 1930s, following the observation of severe soil degradation caused by the intensification of agriculture. [7]

In 1985, the United States introduced three separate cross-compliance programs for field crops (corn, wheat, barley, sorghum, oats, rice, cotton, and soybeans, which receive aid via commodity programs). These three programs were set up under the 1985 Farm Bill. They are overseen by the Farm Service Agency (FSA) and the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS).

  1. conservation compliance", aimed primarily at combating soil erosion and degradation (with 41 million hectares eligible);
  2. sodbuster", designed to protect vulnerable soils from plowing and cultivation;
  3. the "swam-buster", targeting wetlands (6 million hectares)

In 2013, "about 80% of U.S. farmers use crop insurance as an essential risk management tool to manage price volatility and climate variability; Farmers and ranchers pay a premium for this insurance, but about 60 percent of the actual cost of this premium is covered by taxpayers via USDA subsidies". Thus, the public may legitimately want crop insurance payments to be conditional on environmentally sound agricultural performance, argues Bruce Knight, [7] Director of Strategic Conservation Solutions and former Secretary of Marketing and Regulatory Programs at the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) from 2006 to 2009, after having headed the Natural Resources Conservation Service (from 2002 to 2006). [7]

In Europe: mixed results

In Europe, eco-conditionality has been enshrined in the horizontal regulations of the "Berlin Agreement" since 19999. However, for reasons of subsidiarity, it is the member states of the European Union who define the precise content of the programs, and who must ensure, through appropriate controls, that they are properly applied on their territory.

In 2003, a study estimated that around 24.3 billion euros had been spent on agri-environmental programs in the European Union (EU) between 1994 and 2002, but it was not possible to assess how much of this was spent on biodiversity; an exhaustive search of studies that had sought to test the effectiveness of agri-environmental programs in the press showed that only 62 evaluation studies had been published, carried out in just 5 EU countries and Switzerland; [5] 76% of the studies were carried out in the Netherlands and the UK, where at that time only 6% of the EU's agri-environmental budgets had been spent. A few studies concerned Germany [5] [8] Ireland [9] and Portugal; [10] and 31% of these studies contained no statistical analysis. What's more, when an experimental approach was used, its conclusions were generally weak and biased towards the most favorable indicators. The most common experimental design (used by 37% of studies) was to compare biodiversity in agri-environmental scheme areas and areas presented as control areas, but with biases, for example when farmers or coordinating authorities selected the agri-environmental scheme sites studied. In such cases, the sites were likely to have higher biodiversity at the outset than the control sites; this problem can be solved by collecting a wider range of baseline data (34% of studies), comparing trends and not just inventories or inventories (32%) or studying changes (26% of cases) in biodiversity depending on whether or not the area benefits from agri-environmental measures, or better (done in only 16% of studies) by matching control sites and those that have benefited from agri-environmental measures so that their environmental conditions are similar. [3]

In 2019, an econometric study carried out in Lorraine also attempted to measure the impact of this policy on land use, which conditions the production of ecosystem services, from 1988 to 2015, based on data collected from the Fadn and Annual Agricultural Statistics (Dussine, 2019). [11] It appears that direct subsidies paid to encourage certain activities have a relatively limited impact on land use, while agri-environmental measures could explain the development of certain surfaces such as protein crops which, when coupled with oilseeds (such as the rapeseed/beans combination), make it possible to limit insecticide treatments. Similarly, compensatory allowances paid for natural handicaps (Ichn) seem to have a very positive impact on grassland, wasteland, and deciduous trees and even seem to be able to slow down the artificialization of land, but the amounts involved are small and many farmers consider them insufficient.

Under the new CAP

A few new features have appeared locally and briefly, including the possibility (in 2010 only) of MAE Rotationnelle (MAER), a 5-year contract for farms producing 60% or more of cereals and oilseeds in the 2010 UAA. In return, they must diversify their annual crop rotation and introduce a crop succession (on the plots involved) that better preserves or restores biodiversity, while limiting inputs. [12] [13]

From 2003 onwards, the new CAP must theoretically accompany its subsidies with clearer environmental requirements and result indicators. Second pillar aids" are "voluntary contractual aids, in the form of the Indemnité Compensatoire des Handicaps Naturels (ICHN), or return for compliance with environmental specifications over five years (Mesures Agroenvironnementales, including the Prime Herbagère Agroenvironnementale and the MAE Rotationnelle...) "; [14] new MAEs are theoretically limited to MAE Territorialisées (in Natura 2000 zones, and especially catchment areas). [14] A new aid reform is scheduled for 2014 (in particular to accompany the end of milk quotas scheduled for 2015). Farmers must declare on the RPG (Registre parcellaire graphique) the outline of the "parcelles culturales" that are the subject of a commitment (MAE, PHAE, Bio, etc.), and enter the code of each crop, committed or not, present within the PAC [14] islet, which should also help improve environmental assessment statistics. GAECs are subject to a special procedure concerning the "maximum surface area that can be committed to a new MAE contract (PHAE2, MAE Rotationnelle), with a limit of 3 farms within the GAEC ". [14] [15]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agriculture</span> Cultivation of plants and animals to provide useful products

Agriculture encompasses crop and livestock production, aquaculture, fisheries, and forestry for food and non-food products. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to live in cities. While humans started gathering grains at least 105,000 years ago, nascent farmers only began planting them around 11,500 years ago. Sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle were domesticated around 10,000 years ago. Plants were independently cultivated in at least 11 regions of the world. In the 20th century, industrial agriculture based on large-scale monocultures came to dominate agricultural output.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pesticide</span> Substance used to destroy pests

Pesticides are substances that are used to control pests. They include herbicides, insecticides, nematicides, fungicides, and many others. The most common of these are herbicides, which account for approximately 50% of all pesticide use globally. Most pesticides are used as plant protection products, which in general protect plants from weeds, fungi, or insects. In general, a pesticide is a chemical or biological agent that deters, incapacitates, kills, or otherwise discourages pests. Target pests can include insects, plant pathogens, weeds, molluscs, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms), and microbes that destroy property, cause nuisance, or spread disease, or are disease vectors. Along with these benefits, pesticides also have drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and other species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Organic farming</span> Method of agriculture meant to be environmentally friendly

Organic farming, also known as ecological farming or biological farming, is an agricultural system that uses fertilizers of organic origin such as compost manure, green manure, and bone meal and places emphasis on techniques such as crop rotation and companion planting. It originated early in the 20th century in reaction to rapidly changing farming practices. Certified organic agriculture accounts for 70 million hectares globally, with over half of that total in Australia. Biological pest control, mixed cropping, and the fostering of insect predators are encouraged. Organic standards are designed to allow the use of naturally-occurring substances while prohibiting or strictly limiting synthetic substances. For instance, naturally-occurring pesticides such as pyrethrin are permitted, while synthetic fertilizers and pesticides are generally prohibited. Synthetic substances that are allowed include, for example, copper sulfate, elemental sulfur, and veterinary drugs. Genetically modified organisms, nanomaterials, human sewage sludge, plant growth regulators, hormones, and antibiotic use in livestock husbandry are prohibited. Organic farming advocates claim advantages in sustainability, openness, self-sufficiency, autonomy and independence, health, food security, and food safety.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Natura 2000</span> Network of protected areas

Natura 2000 is a network of nature protection areas in the territory of the European Union. It is made up of Special Areas of Conservation and Special Protection Areas designated under the Habitats Directive and the Birds Directive, respectively. The network includes both terrestrial and Marine Protected Areas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Common Agricultural Policy</span> Agricultural policy of the European Union

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is the agricultural policy of the European Commission. It implements a system of agricultural subsidies and other programmes. It was introduced in 1962 and has since then undergone several changes to reduce the EEC budget cost and consider rural development in its aims. It has however, been criticised on the grounds of its cost, its environmental, and humanitarian effects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orchard</span> Intentionally planted trees or shrubs that are maintained for food production

An orchard is an intentional plantation of trees or shrubs that is maintained for food production. Orchards comprise fruit- or nut-producing trees that are generally grown for commercial production. Orchards are also sometimes a feature of large gardens, where they serve an aesthetic as well as a productive purpose. A fruit garden is generally synonymous with an orchard, although it is set on a smaller, non-commercial scale and may emphasize berry shrubs in preference to fruit trees. Most temperate-zone orchards are laid out in a regular grid, with a grazed or mown grass or bare soil base that makes maintenance and fruit gathering easy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agricultural subsidy</span> Governmental subsidy paid to farmers and agribusinesses

An agricultural subsidy is a government incentive paid to agribusinesses, agricultural organizations and farms to supplement their income, manage the supply of agricultural commodities, and influence the cost and supply of such commodities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conservation agriculture</span> Farming system to preserve and regenerate land capacity

Conservation agriculture (CA) can be defined by a statement given by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations as "Conservation Agriculture (CA) is a farming system that can prevent losses of arable land while regenerating degraded lands.It promotes minimum soil disturbance, maintenance of a permanent soil cover, and diversification of plant species. It enhances biodiversity and natural biological processes above and below the ground surface, which contribute to increased water and nutrient use efficiency and to improved and sustained crop production."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grazing</span> Feeding livestock on forage

In agriculture, grazing is a method of animal husbandry whereby domestic livestock are allowed outdoors to free range and consume wild vegetations in order to convert the otherwise indigestible cellulose within grass and other forages into meat, milk, wool and other animal products, often on land that is unsuitable for arable farming.

An environmental management scheme is a mechanism by which landowners and other individuals and bodies responsible for land management can be incentivised to manage their environment.

On 26 June 2003, EU farm ministers adopted a fundamental reform of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and introduced a new Single Payment Scheme for direct subsidy payments to landowners.

<i>Miscanthus × giganteus</i> Species of grass

Miscanthus × giganteus, also known as the giant miscanthus, is a sterile hybrid of Miscanthus sinensis and Miscanthus sacchariflorus. It is a perennial grass with bamboo-like stems that can grow to heights of 3–4 metres (13 ft) in one season. Just like Pennisetum purpureum, Arundo donax and Saccharum ravennae, it is also called elephant grass.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conservation grazing</span> Use of animals to graze areas like nature reserves to maintain habitats

Conservation grazing or targeted grazing is the use of semi-feral or domesticated grazing livestock to maintain and increase the biodiversity of natural or semi-natural grasslands, heathlands, wood pasture, wetlands and many other habitats. Conservation grazing is generally less intensive than practices such as prescribed burning, but still needs to be managed to ensure that overgrazing does not occur. The practice has proven to be beneficial in moderation in restoring and maintaining grassland and heathland ecosystems. Conservation or monitored grazing has been implemented into regenerative agriculture programs to restore soil and overall ecosystem health of current working landscapes. The optimal level of grazing and grazing animal will depend on the goal of conservation. Different levels of grazing, alongside other conservation practices, can be used to induce desired results.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hill farming</span> Hill farming or terrace farming is a Type of agricultural in upland areas

Hill farming or terrace farming is an extensive farming in upland areas, primarily rearing sheep, although historically cattle were often reared extensively in upland areas. Fell farming is the farming of fells, a fell being an area of uncultivated high ground used as common grazing. It is a term commonly used in Northern England, especially in the Lake District and the Pennine Dales. Elsewhere, the terms hill farming or pastoral farming are more commonly used.

The agricultural policy of the United States is composed primarily of the periodically renewed federal U.S. farm bills. The Farm Bills have a rich history which initially sought to provide income and price support to US farmers and prevent them from adverse global as well as local supply and demand shocks. This implied an elaborate subsidy program which supports domestic production by either direct payments or through price support measures. The former incentivizes farmers to grow certain crops which are eligible for such payments through environmentally conscientious practices of farming. The latter protects farmers from vagaries of price fluctuations by ensuring a minimum price and fulfilling their shortfalls in revenue upon a fall in price. Lately, there are other measures through which the government encourages crop insurance and pays part of the premium for such insurance against various unanticipated outcomes in agriculture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Agricultural land</span> Land used for agricultural purposes

Agricultural land is typically land devoted to agriculture, the systematic and controlled use of other forms of life—particularly the rearing of livestock and production of crops—to produce food for humans. It is generally synonymous with both farmland or cropland, as well as pasture or rangeland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European Centre for Nature Conservation</span>

The European Centre for Nature Conservation (ECNC) was a Dutch non-profit foundation which was active in the field of European nature and biodiversity policy between 1993 and 2017. It was set up as a network of university departments, expert centres and government agencies and operated as a European biodiversity expertise centre. The organization promoted sustainable management of natural resources and biodiversity, and aimed to stimulate interaction between science, society and policy.

Energy efficiency in agriculture refers to reducing the amount of energy required to provide agricultural products and services. The European Commission has policies related to energy efficiency, including in agriculture. The European Union has established measures to promote energy efficiency, including setting targets for energy savings, and requiring energy audits and management plans for large companies. The AGREE project conducted studies on energy efficiency in different agricultural production systems and proposed measures for improvement. The results of the project were summarized in reports that highlighted the opportunities and drawbacks for energy efficiency in agriculture in different European countries. Improving energy efficiency in agriculture contributes to reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon farming</span> Agricultural methods that capture carbon

Carbon farming is a set of agricultural methods that aim to store carbon in the soil, crop roots, wood and leaves. The technical term for this is carbon sequestration. The overall goal of carbon farming is to create a net loss of carbon from the atmosphere. This is done by increasing the rate at which carbon is sequestered into soil and plant material. One option is to increase the soil's organic matter content. This can also aid plant growth, improve soil water retention capacity and reduce fertilizer use. Sustainable forest management is another tool that is used in carbon farming. Carbon farming is one component of climate-smart agriculture. It is also one way to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

The Biodiversity Monitoring Switzerland (BDM) is a Swiss Confederation programme for the long-term monitoring of species diversity in Switzerland.

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Bibliography