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Parenting or child rearing promotes and supports the physical, emotional, social, spiritual and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the intricacies of raising a child and not exclusively for a biological relationship.
In sociology, a peer group is both a social group and a primary group of people who have similar interests (homophily), age, background, or social status. The members of this group are likely to influence the person's beliefs and behaviour.
Baby sign language is the use of manual signing allowing infants and toddlers to communicate emotions, desires, and objects prior to spoken language development. With guidance and encouragement signing develops from a natural stage in infant development known as gesture. These gestures are taught in conjunction with speech to hearing children, and are not the same as a sign language. Some common benefits that have been found through the use of baby sign programs include an increased parent-child bond and communication, decreased frustration, and improved self-esteem for both the parent and child. Researchers have found that baby sign neither benefits nor harms the language development of infants. Promotional products and ease of information access have increased the attention that baby sign receives, making it pertinent that caregivers become educated before making the decision to use baby sign.
A sibling is a relative that shares at least one parent with the subject. A male sibling is a brother and a female sibling is a sister. A person with no siblings is an only child.
Sympathy is the perception of, understanding of, and reaction to the distress or need of another life form. According to David Hume, this sympathetic concern is driven by a switch in viewpoint from a personal perspective to the perspective of another group or individual who is in need. Hume explained that this is the case because "the minds of all men are similar in their feelings and operations" and that "the motion of one communicates itself to the rest" so that as "affections readily pass from one person to another… they beget correspondent movements." Along with Hume, two other men, Adam Smith and Arthur Schopenhauer, worked to better define sympathy. Hume was mostly known for epistemology, Smith was known for his economic theory, and Schopenhauer for the philosophy of the will. An American professor, Brene Brown, views sympathy as a way to stay out of touch with ones emotions. They attempt to make sense out of the situation and see it from the person receiving the sympathy's perception.
Social behavior is behavior among two or more organisms within the same species, and encompasses any behavior in which one member affects the other. This is due to an interaction among those members. Social behavior can be seen as similar to an exchange of goods, with the expectation that when you give, you will receive the same. This behavior can be affected by both the qualities of the individual and the environmental (situational) factors. Therefore, social behavior arises as a result of an interaction between the two—the organism and its environment. This means that, in regards to humans, social behavior can be determined by both the individual characteristics of the person, and the situation they are in.
A parenting style is a pattern of behaviors, attitudes, and approaches that a parent uses when interacting with and raising their child. The study of parenting styles is based on the idea that parents differ in their patterns of parenting and that these patterns can have a significant impact on their children's development and well-being. Parenting styles are distinct from specific parenting practices, since they represent broader patterns of practices and attitudes that create an emotional climate for the child. Parenting styles also encompass the ways in which parents respond to and make demands on their children.
Child development involves the biological, psychological and emotional changes that occur in human beings between birth and the conclusion of adolescence. Childhood is divided into 3 stages of life which include early childhood, middle childhood, and late childhood (preadolescence). Early childhood typically ranges from infancy to the age of 6 years old. During this period, development is significant, as many of life's milestones happen during this time period such as first words, learning to crawl, and learning to walk. There is speculation that middle childhood/preadolescence or ages 6–12 are the most crucial years of a child's life. Adolescence is the stage of life that typically starts around the major onset of puberty, with markers such as menarche and spermarche, typically occurring at 12–13 years of age. It has been defined as ages 10 to 19 by the World Health Organization. In the course of development, the individual human progresses from dependency to increasing autonomy. It is a continuous process with a predictable sequence, yet has a unique course for every child. It does not progress at the same rate and each stage is affected by the preceding developmental experiences. Because genetic factors and events during prenatal life may strongly influence developmental changes, genetics and prenatal development usually form a part of the study of child development. Related terms include developmental psychology, referring to development throughout the lifespan, and pediatrics, the branch of medicine relating to the care of children.
In psychology, mentalization is the ability to understand the mental state – of oneself or others – that underlies overt behaviour. Mentalization can be seen as a form of imaginative mental activity that lets us perceive and interpret human behaviour in terms of intentional mental states. It is sometimes described as "understanding misunderstanding." Another term that David Wallin has used for mentalization is "Thinking about thinking". Mentalization can occur either automatically or consciously. Mentalization ability, or mentalizing, is weakened by intense emotion.
Meta-emotion is "an organized and structured set of emotions and cognitions about the emotions, both one's own emotions and the emotions of others". This broad definition of meta-emotion sparked psychologists' interest in the topic, particularly regarding parental meta-emotion philosophy.
According to some theories, emotions are universal phenomena, albeit affected by culture. Emotions are "internal phenomena that can, but do not always, make themselves observable through expression and behavior". While some emotions are universal and are experienced in similar ways as a reaction to similar events across all cultures, other emotions show considerable cultural differences in their antecedent events, the way they are experienced, the reactions they provoke and the way they are perceived by the surrounding society. According to other theories, termed social constructionist, emotions are more deeply culturally influenced. The components of emotions are universal, but the patterns are social constructions. Some also theorize that culture is affected by emotions of the people.
Display rules are a social group or culture's informal norms that distinguish how one should express themselves. They can be described as culturally prescribed rules that people learn early on in their lives by interactions and socializations with other people. They learn these cultural standards at a young age which determine when one would express certain emotions, where and to what extent.
Social competence consists of social, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral skills needed for successful social adaptation. Social competence also reflects having the ability to take another's perspective concerning a situation, learn from past experiences, and apply that learning to the changes in social interactions.
Moral development focuses on the emergence, change, and understanding of morality from infancy through adulthood. Morality develops across a life span in a variety of ways and is influenced by an individual's experiences and behavior when faced with moral issues through different periods of physical and cognitive development. Morality concerns an individual's reforming sense of what is right and wrong; it is for this reason that young children have different moral judgment and character than that of a grown adult. Morality in itself is often a synonym for "rightness" or "goodness." It also refers to a specific code of conduct that is derived from one's culture, religion, or personal philosophy that guides one's actions, behaviors, and thoughts.
Gender roles are culturally influenced stereotypes which create expectations for appropriate behavior for males and females. An understanding of these roles is evident in children as young as age four. Children between 3 and 6 months can form distinctions between male and female faces. By ten months, infants can associate certain objects with females and males, like a hammer with males or scarf with females. Gender roles are influenced by the media, family, environment, and society. In addition to biological maturation, children develop within a set of gender-specific social and behavioral norms embedded in family structure, natural play patterns, close friendships, and the teeming social jungle of school life. The gender roles encountered in childhood play a large part in shaping an individual's self-concept and influence the way an individual forms relationships later on in life.
The relationship between gender and emotional expression describes the differences in behavior and actions to express emotions between men and women. These differences may be primarily due to cultural expectations of femininity and masculinity.
Social emotional development represents a specific domain of child development. It is a gradual, integrative process through which children acquire the capacity to understand, experience, express, and manage emotions and to develop meaningful relationships with others. As such, social emotional development encompasses a large range of skills and constructs, including, but not limited to: self-awareness, joint attention, play, theory of mind, self-esteem, emotion regulation, friendships, and identity development.
Nancy Eisenberg is a psychologist and professor at Arizona State University. She was the President of the Western Psychological Association in 2014-2015 and the Division 7 president of the American Psychological Association in 2010-2012. Her research focuses on areas of emotional and social development of children. She is also in charge of a research lab at Arizona State University where undergraduate researchers help in longitudinal studies of social and emotional development in children and young adolescents.
Mia A. Smith-Bynum a clinical psychologist who specializes in family science and is known for her research on mental health, parenting, family interactions, communication, and racial-ethnic socialization in ethnic minority families. Smith-Bynum is associate professor of Family Science in the School of Public Health at the University of Maryland-College Park, where she is also affiliated with the Maryland Population Research Center. She is Chair of the Black Caucus of the Society for Research in Child Development.
Carolyn Ingrid Saarni was a developmental psychologist known for groundbreaking research on children's development of emotional competence and emotional self-regulation, and the role of parental influence in emotional socialization. She was a professor in the Department of Counseling at Sonoma State University from 1980 to 2013.
References
- ↑ "Social Development". Wiley-Blackwell.
- ↑ "Fast Track Project: The FEQ".
- ↑ Eisenberg, N. (2001). "The core and correlates of Affective Social Competence". Social Development. 10: 120–124. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00151.; Saarni, C. (2001). "Cognition, context, and goals: Significant components in socio-emotional effectiveness". Social Development. 10: 125–129. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00152.; Michelle Shiota and James Kalat, Emotion (Cengage, second edition, 2011), pp. 00. ISBN 0-495-91288-3
- ↑ Halberstadt, A. G.; Denham, S. A. & Dunsmore, J. C. (2001). "Affective Social Competence". Social Development. 10: 79–119. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00150..
- ↑ Salmon, K.; Dadds, M.R.; Allen, J. & Hawes, D.J. (2009). "Can emotional language skills be taught during parent training for conduct problem children?". Child Psychiatry and Human Development. 40 (4): 485–498. doi:10.1007/s10578-009-0139-8. PMID 19373551. S2CID 25559997..
- ↑ Denham, S.A.; Caverly, S.; Schmidt, M.; Blair, K.; DeMulder, E.; Caal, S.; Hamada, H.; Mason, T. (2002). "Preschool understanding of emotions: Contributions to classroom anger and aggression". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 43 (7): 901–916. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00139. PMID 12405478..
- ↑ Dunsmore, J.C.; Noguchi, R.J.P.; Garner, P.W.; Casey, E.C. & Bhullar, N. (2008). "Gender-specific linkages of Affective Social Competence with peer relations in preschool children". Early Education and Development. 19 (2): 211–237. doi:10.1080/10409280801963897. S2CID 143344557..
- ↑ Clark, T.R.; Phares, V. (2004). "Feelings in the family: Interparental conflict, anger and expressiveness in families with older adolescents". The Family Journal. 12 (2): 129–138. doi:10.1177/1066480703261961. S2CID 30059548..
- ↑ Halberstadt, A. G.; Thompson, J. A.; Parker, A. E. & Dunsmore, J. C. (2008). "Parents' emotion-related beliefs and behaviors in relation to children's coping with the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks". Infant and Child Development. 17: 557–580. doi:10.1002/icd.569..
- ↑ Her, P.; Dunsmore, J.C. (2011). "Parental beliefs about emotions are associated with early adolescents' independent and interdependent self-construals". International Journal of Behavioral Development. 35 (4): 317–328. doi:10.1177/0165025410397644. S2CID 146534706..
- ↑ Perez-Rivera, M.B.; Dunsmore, J.C. (2011). "Mothers' acculturation and beliefs about emotions, mother-child emotion discourse, and children's emotion understanding in Latino families". Early Education and Development. 22 (2): 324–354. doi:10.1080/10409281003702000. S2CID 143911362..
- ↑ Stelter, R. L.; Halberstadt, A. G. (2010). "The interplay between parental beliefs about children's emotions and parental stress impacts children's attachment security". Infant and Child Development. 20 (3): 272–287. doi:10.1002/icd.693. PMC 3124851 . PMID 21731472..
- ↑ Wong, M. S.; McElwain, N. & Halberstadt, A. G. (2009). "Parent, family, and child characteristics as predictors of mother- and father-reported emotion socialization practices". Journal of Family Psychology. 23 (4): 452–463. doi:10.1037/a0015552. PMID 19685981..
- ↑ Halberstadt, A.G.; Lozada, F.L. (2010). "Emotion development in infancy through the lens of culture". Emotion Review. 3: 1–12..
- ↑ Parker, A. E.; Halberstadt, A. G.; Dunsmore, J. C.; Townley, G. E.; Bryant, A.; Thompson, J. A. & Beale, K. S. ""Emotions are a window into one's heart": A qualitative analysis of parental beliefs about children's emotions across three ethnic groups". Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development (in press)..
