Astrometallurgy

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Astrometallurgy is the study of mineral processing and metal extraction from extra-terrestrial resources including the Moon, Mars, asteroids, and other celestial bodies. [1] A specialised form of extractive metallurgy, this discipline is closely linked to space in-situ resource utilisation (ISRU) or space resource utilisation (SRU).

Contents

Background

The study of resource extraction in space dates back to the pre-apollo era, [2] with the majority of focus placed on oxygen extraction for use as a propellant and for life support. [3] The extraction and use of space resources (in space) is justified by the large cost associated with the launch of materials to support missions and eventual bases or habitats. Sourcing materials from sources other than Earth is argued to significantly reduce upmass and mission costs. [4]

Oxygen as a target was quickly followed by research into the use of planetary dirt or 'regolith' being used for construction and manufacturing purposes both in-situ on bodies like the Moon, and also for in-space manufacturing. [5] While earlier research into oxygen extraction from the oxides found in planetary dirt would have resulted the production of metals as a byproduct, the specific targeting of metals as a primary extraction target only originates in the mid to late 2010's. [6]

Etymology

The word 'astrometallurgy' seems to be derived from 'astro-' meaning space or extra-terrestrial, and "metallurgy" meaning the study of metals and metal extraction. [1]

Processes

Many of the processes currently being studied for use in astrometallurgical applications are very similar in concept to their terrestrial counterparts. The significant challenge is the conversion of these existing technologies for use in the harsh environment of space namely: the vacuum or low pressure, low- or micro-gravity conditions, cost of resupply and transport, energy availability, large temperature changes, and need for automation due to the difficulty of human intervention. [6]

Mineral processing

Mineral processing techniques are often used to create a mineral concentrate from an ore prior to metal extraction, this is done to reduce the energy requirements and minimise contaminants in the final metal product. [7]

In the context of astrometallurgy, due to the general lack of available liquid water in space, mineral processing techniques that can operate on a dry raw material are preferred. [8] These processes include electrostatic separation, [9] [10] [11] magnetic separation, [12] [13] [14] and induced gravity separation. [15]

Metal extraction

The extraction of metals from either a raw material, or from a mineral concentrate, is achieved using some mixture of thermal, chemical, and electrical energy to separate out the metal atoms from non-metal material. [16]

Metal extraction processes for use in space that have been lab tested to date include:

A more comprehensive list was published by Shaw et al. [6]

Current state of the art

As of Feb 2026, the extraction of metals in an extraterrestrial context has not been demonstrated. However, multiple space agencies and private companies have announced plans and payloads that will aim to demonstrate the ability to extract and use metals in space. [30]

References

  1. 1 2 Turan, Ahmet; Can, Gizem Akay; Cirit, Elif Sümeyye; Toğaçar, İlayda Özbağ; Yavaş, Umay Çınarlı; Tolendiuly, Sanat (2025-07-30). "Origin and Future of Astrometallurgy". ITU Journal of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering. 2 (2): 22–30. ISSN   3062-0406.
  2. ↑ Beegle, R. L.; Guter, G. A.; Miller, F. E.; Rosenberg, S. D. (1965-08-01). "Research on processes for utilization of lunar resources Final report, 22 Apr. 1963 - 15 Jul. 1965".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  3. ↑ Schlüter, Lukas; Cowley, Aidan (2020-02-01). "Review of techniques for In-Situ oxygen extraction on the moon". Planetary and Space Science. 181 104753. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2019.104753. ISSN   0032-0633.
  4. ↑ Sacksteder, Kurt; Sanders, Gerald (2007-01-08). In-Situ Resource Utilization for Lunar and Mars Exploration. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. doi:10.2514/6.2007-345. ISBN   978-1-62410-012-3.
  5. ↑ Naser, M. Z. (2019-08-01). "Extraterrestrial construction materials". Progress in Materials Science. 105 100577. doi:10.1016/j.pmatsci.2019.100577. ISSN   0079-6425.
  6. 1 2 3 Shaw, Matthew; Humbert, Matthew; Brooks, Geoffrey; Rhamdhani, Akbar; Duffy, Alan; Pownceby, Mark (2022-10-03). "Mineral Processing and Metal Extraction on the Lunar Surface - Challenges and Opportunities". Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review. 43 (7): 865–891. arXiv: 2109.02201 . doi:10.1080/08827508.2021.1969390. ISSN   0882-7508.
  7. ↑ Wills, Barry A.; Finch, James A. (2015-09-04). Wills' Mineral Processing Technology: An Introduction to the Practical Aspects of Ore Treatment and Mineral Recovery. Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN   978-0-08-097053-0.
  8. ↑ Rasera, J. N.; Cilliers, J. J.; Lamamy, J. A.; Hadler, K. (2020-07-01). "The beneficiation of lunar regolith for space resource utilisation: A review". Planetary and Space Science. 186 104879. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2020.104879. ISSN   0032-0633.
  9. ↑ Trigwell, Steve; Captain, James; Weis, Kyle; Quinn, Jacqueline (January 2013). "Electrostatic Beneficiation of Lunar Regolith: Applications in In Situ Resource Utilization". Journal of Aerospace Engineering. 26 (1): 30–36. doi:10.1061/(asce)as.1943-5525.0000226. ISSN   0893-1321.
  10. ↑ Quinn, Jacqueline W.; Captain, Jim G.; Weis, Kyle; Santiago-Maldonado, Edgardo; Trigwell, Steve (January 2013). "Evaluation of Tribocharged Electrostatic Beneficiation of Lunar Simulant in Lunar Gravity". Journal of Aerospace Engineering. 26 (1): 37–42. doi:10.1061/(asce)as.1943-5525.0000227. hdl:2060/20110016172. ISSN   0893-1321.
  11. ↑ Adachi, M.; Kawamoto, H. (May 2017). "Electrostatic Sampler for Large Regolith Particles on Asteroids". Journal of Aerospace Engineering. 30 (3) 04016098. doi:10.1061/(asce)as.1943-5525.0000701. ISSN   0893-1321.
  12. ↑ Cattermole, Peter (January 1989). "Proceedings of the 18th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, Cambridge University Press and The Lunar and Planetary Institute, 1988. No of pages: 753. Price £60.00 (hardback)". Geological Journal. 24 (3): 236–237. doi:10.1002/gj.3350240316. ISSN   0072-1050.
  13. ↑ Berggren, Mark; Zubrin, Robert; Jonscher, Peter; Kilgore, James (2011-01-04). "Lunar Soil Particle Separator". 49th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting Including the New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition. Reston, Virigina: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. doi:10.2514/6.2011-436. hdl:2060/20100024432. ISBN   978-1-60086-950-1.
  14. ↑ Adachi, M.; Obata, R.; Kawamoto, H.; Wakabayashi, S.; Hoshino, T. (March 2018). "Magnetic Sampler for Regolith Particles on Asteroids". Journal of Aerospace Engineering. 31 (2) 04017095. doi:10.1061/(asce)as.1943-5525.0000797. ISSN   0893-1321.
  15. ↑ Dreyer, C. B.; Walton, O.; Riedel, E. P. (2012-04-17). "Centrifugal Sieve for Size-Segregation and Beneficiation of Regolith". Earth and Space 2012. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers: 31–35. doi:10.1061/9780784412190.004. ISBN   978-0-7844-1219-0.
  16. ↑ Vignes, Alain (2013-03-25). Extractive Metallurgy 1: Basic Thermodynamics and Kinetics (1 ed.). Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781118618974. ISBN   978-1-84821-160-5.
  17. ↑ Mc Cullough, Edward; Cutler, Andrew (2001-01-08). "ISRU lunar processing research at Boeing". 39th Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. doi:10.2514/6.2001-938.
  18. ↑ Sargeant, H.M.; Abernethy, F.A.J.; Barber, S.J.; Wright, I.P.; Anand, M.; Sheridan, S.; Morse, A. (January 2020). "Hydrogen reduction of ilmenite: Towards an in situ resource utilization demonstration on the surface of the Moon". Planetary and Space Science. 180 104751. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2019.104751.
  19. ↑ Sirk, Aislinn; Sadoway, Donald; Sibille, Laurent (2010-02-05). "Direct Electrolysis of Molten Lunar Regolith for the Production of Oxygen and Metals on the Moon". ECS Meeting Abstracts. MA2010-01 (28): 1389. doi:10.1149/ma2010-01/28/1389. ISSN   2151-2043.
  20. ↑ Sibille, Laurent; Sadoway, Donald; Sirk, Aislinn; Tripathy, Prabhat; Melendez, Orlando; Standish, Evan; Dominguez, Jesus; Stefanescu, Doru; Curreri, Peter; Poizeau, Sophie (2009-01-05). Recent Advances in Scale-Up Development of Molten Regolith Electrolysis for Oxygen Production in Support of a Lunar Base. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. doi:10.2514/6.2009-659. ISBN   978-1-60086-973-0.
  21. ↑ Lomax, Bethany A.; Conti, Melchiorre; Khan, Nader; Bennett, Nick S.; Ganin, Alexey Y.; Symes, Mark D. (January 2020). "Proving the viability of an electrochemical process for the simultaneous extraction of oxygen and production of metal alloys from lunar regolith". Planetary and Space Science. 180 104748. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2019.104748.
  22. ↑ Shaw, Matthew (2023). "Vacuum Thermal Sublimation for Metal Production from Lunar Regolith". doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.25263.20646.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  23. ↑ Sen, S.; Butts, D.; O'Dell, J. S.; Ray, C. S. (2010-03-11). "Plasma Processing of Lunar Regolith Simulant for Oxygen and Glass Production". Earth and Space 2010. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers: 1343–1352. doi:10.1061/41096(366)121. ISBN   978-0-7844-1096-7.
  24. ↑ Karr, Laurel; Curreri, Peter; Thornton, Gary; Depew, Kevin; Vankeuren, John; Regelman, Matthew; Fox, Eric; Marone, Matthew; Donovan, David; Paley, Mark (2018-09-17). Ionic Liquid Facilitated Recovery of Metals and Oxygen from Regolith. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. doi:10.2514/6.2018-5291. hdl:2060/20180006392. ISBN   978-1-62410-575-3.
  25. ↑ Xie, Kaiyu; Shi, Zhongning; Xu, Junli; Hu, Xianwei; Gao, Bingliang; Wang, Zhaowen (October 2017). "Aluminothermic Reduction-Molten Salt Electrolysis Using Inert Anode for Oxygen and Al-Base Alloy Extraction from Lunar Soil Simulant". JOM. 69 (10): 1963–1969. doi:10.1007/s11837-017-2478-4. ISSN   1047-4838.
  26. ↑ Mc Cullough, Edward; Cutler, Andrew (2001-01-08). "ISRU lunar processing research at Boeing". 39th Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. doi:10.2514/6.2001-938.
  27. ↑ Turan, Evren M.; Stein, Samuel A.; Maharaj, Riddhi; Möller, Klaus P. (April 2020). "A flow sheet for the conversion of lunar regolith using fluorine gas". Advances in Space Research. 65 (7): 1852–1862. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2020.01.014.
  28. ↑ Castelein, Sofie M.; Aarts, Tom F.; Schleppi, Juergen; Hendrikx, Ruud; Böttger, Amarante J.; Benz, Dominik; Marechal, Maude; Makaya, Advenit; Brouns, Stan J. J.; Schwentenwein, Martin; Meyer, Anne S.; Lehner, Benjamin A. E. (2021-04-28). Mukherjee, Amitava (ed.). "Iron can be microbially extracted from Lunar and Martian regolith simulants and 3D printed into tough structural materials". PLOS ONE. 16 (4): e0249962. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0249962 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   8081250 . PMID   33909656.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: article number as page number (link)
  29. ↑ Rosenberg, S. D.; Guter, G. A.; Miller, F. E. (July 1965). "Manufacture of Oxygen from Lunar Materials". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 123 (2): 1106–1122. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1965.tb20422.x. ISSN   0077-8923.
  30. ↑ Sanders, Gerald B.; Kleinhenz, Julie E. (2024-10-14). "Update on NASA's ISRU Development and Mission Plans for the Artemis Program".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
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