Autospore

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Reproduction of Radiococcus and Tetracoccus by forming 4 autospores within a single cell Radiococcus and Tetracoccus.jpg
Reproduction of Radiococcus and Tetracoccus by forming 4 autospores within a single cell

Autospores are a type of spores that are produced by algae to enable asexual reproduction and spread. They are non-motile and non-flagellated aplanospores that are generated within a parent cell and have the same shape as the parent cell before their release. [1] Autospores are also known as resting spores. [2] Algae primarily use three different types of spores for asexual reproduction - autospores, zoospores, and aplanospores. [3] Autospores occur in several groups of algae, including Eustigmatophyceae , Dinoflagellates , and green algae. One example of a colonial alga that produces autospores is Dichotomococcus. This alga generates two autospores per reproducing cell, and the autospores escape through a slit in the cell wall and remain attached to the mother cell. [4] Some study on autospores and algae in general include looking into its use for biofuel, animal feed, food supplements, nutraceuticals, and pharmaceuticals. [5]

Contents

Autospore Formation

Trypanochloris can form more than 128 autospores from a single cell. Trypanochloris clausiliae fig.690.jpg
Trypanochloris can form more than 128 autospores from a single cell.
Differential interference contrast microscopy image of Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata cells dividing in two, four, and eight-autospore formation. Cell reproductive patterns in Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata, focusing on cytoplasmic and nuclear division.png
Differential interference contrast microscopy image of Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata cells dividing in two, four, and eight-autospore formation.

Autospores are the daughter cells formed by the internal division of a single cell. [8] Autospores are formed during favorable conditions. [2] Autospores are formed as a result of fission in the mitotic phase of cell division of green algae. Fission in the mitotic phase of cell division of green algae forms autospores. Cells may use different methods to produce different numbers of autospores or multinucleated autospores; for example, the Dictyochloropsis genus of algae can produce between 4 and 16 autospores when they reproduce. The cell can undergo a multipartition after two rounds of fission as happens in Kirchneriella lunaris. [9] Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata follows a similar method of multiple fission after two nuclear divisions, which forms four autospores, but also has two other methods: binary fission, producing two autospores, or "two-autospore type," and multiple fission which produces eight autospores known as "eight-autospore type." [10] Chlorella vulgaris produces between 2 and 32 autospores which burst out of the mother cell and use it's debris as food in a process called autosporulation as studied and depicted by Ru in Chlorella vulgaris: a perspective on its potential for combining high biomass with high value bioproducts. [5] The particular path a cell uses to produce autospores may vary not only by species, but also by environmental factors such as toxins or metals, such as Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata selecting between eight and two-autospore production based on concentration of potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) or 3,5-dichlorophenol (3,5-DCP) as studied by Yamagishi in Cell reproductive patterns in the green alga Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata (=Selenastrum capricornutum) and their variations under exposure to the typical toxicants potassium dichromate and 3,5-DCP. [10] There are two stages of autospore formation. There is some synthesis during the process of cell growth, then, during the cell division stage, the synthesis is rapid. Once mature, the autospores will be released through the rupturing of the cell wall. [11] After being released from the cell's autosporangium, the autospore will begin to synthesize a new daughter cells. [12]

Behavior of Autospores

Autospores are aflagellate, and thus do not move on their own, instead being directed by currents. [7] Autospores are self-germinating, and are named for this ability: "auto" being Greek for self, and "spora" for seed. [13] Some autospores, produced through autosporulation, feed on the remains of the parent cell immediately after release. [5] Autospores are small copies of the parent cell, in both shape and functioning, and thus behave the same once grown, including producing more autospores.

Other Algal Reproductive Methods

Algae can reproduce asexually, sexually, and vegetatively. [2] Vegetative methods of algal reproduction include sinple cell division, fission, fragmentation, splitting of colonial forms, hormogonia, vegetative bodies, formation of adventitious branches, tubers, and budding. Sexual methods of algal reproduction include isogamy, anisogamy, oogamy, autogamy, and hologamy. Autospores are one of three primary kinds of spores which algae use to reproduce asexually, along with zoospores and aplanospores. Algae can also asexually reproduce through less commonly known hypnospores, akinetes, heterocysts, endospores, exospores, androspores, neutral spores, carpospores, tetraspores, and palmella stage. [2] Zoospores are flagellate and can move to seek better conditions, whereas aplanospores and autospores are aflagellate and move only by environmental effects such as current. [7] Aplanospores and zoospores are produced endogenously, or internally. [14] Autospores are identical copies of the parent cell and cannot develop into zoospores. They are released through the rupturing of the parent cell wall. [3]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Asexual reproduction</span> Reproduction without a sexual process

Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that does not involve the fusion of gametes or change in the number of chromosomes. The offspring that arise by asexual reproduction from either unicellular or multicellular organisms inherit the full set of genes of their single parent and thus the newly created individual is genetically and physically similar to the parent or an exact clone of the parent. Asexual reproduction is the primary form of reproduction for single-celled organisms such as archaea and bacteria. Many eukaryotic organisms including plants, animals, and fungi can also reproduce asexually. In vertebrates, the most common form of asexual reproduction is parthenogenesis, which is typically used as an alternative to sexual reproduction in times when reproductive opportunities are limited. Komodo dragons and some monitor lizards can reproduce asexually.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chlorophyceae</span> Class of green algae

The Chlorophyceae are one of the classes of green algae, distinguished mainly on the basis of ultrastructural morphology. They are usually green due to the dominance of pigments chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b. The chloroplast may be discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral- or ribbon-shaped in different species. Most of the members have one or more storage bodies called pyrenoids located in the chloroplast. Pyrenoids contain protein besides starch. Some green algae may store food in the form of oil droplets. They usually have a cell wall made up of an inner layer of cellulose and outer layer of pectose.

In botany, a zoid or zoïd is a reproductive cell that possesses one or more flagella, and is capable of independent movement. Zoid can refer to either an asexually reproductive spore or a sexually reproductive gamete. In sexually reproductive gametes, zoids can be either male or female depending on the species. For example, some brown alga (Phaeophyceae) reproduce by producing multi-flagellated male and female gametes that recombine to form the diploid sporangia. Zoids are primarily found in some protists, diatoms, green alga, brown alga, non-vascular plants, and a few vascular plants. The most common classification group that produces zoids is the heterokonts or stramenopiles. These include green alga, brown alga, oomycetes, and some protists. The term is generally not used to describe motile, flagellated sperm found in animals. Zoid is also commonly confused for zooid which is a single organism that is part of a colonial animal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Characiochloridaceae</span> Family of algae

Characiochloridaceae is a family of green algae in the order Chlamydomonadales.

Atractomorpha is a genus in the Sphaeropleaceae, a family of green algae. The genus name is derived from Greek and means "spindle-shaped" or "arrow-shaped", and refers to the shape of the cells.

<i>Bracteacoccus</i> Genus of algae

Bracteacoccus is a genus of green algae, the sole genus of the family Bracteacoccaceae. It is a terrestrial alga commonly found in soils, from the tropics to the poles.

Dictyochloropsis is a genus of unicellular green alga of the phylum Chlorophyta. This genus consists of free-living algae which have a reticulate (net-like) chloroplast that varies slightly in morphology between species, and that when mature always lacks a pyrenoid. Dictyochloropsis is asexual and reproduces using autospores.

<i>Neochloris</i> Genus of algae

Neochloris is a genus of green algae in the family Neochloridaceae. It is found in freshwater aquatic and terrestrial soil habitats.

Planktosphaeria is a genus of green algae, specifically of the Chlorophyceae. It was first described by the phycologist Gilbert Morgan Smith in 1918, with Planktosphaeria gelatinosa as its type species. Species of Planktosphaeria are commonly found in freshwater plankton around the world.

Pseudomuriella is a genus of green algae, specifically of the class Chlorophyceae. It is the sole genus of the family Pseudomuriellaceae. It is a terrestrial alga that inhabits soils.

Raphidocelis is a genus of green algae in the family Selenastraceae. They are found in freshwater habitats.

<i>Selenastrum</i> Genus of algae

Selenastrum is a genus of green algae in the family Selenastraceae. It is common in freshwater habitats around the world. Most species prefer temperate or warm-temperate waters.

<i>Tetraedron</i> Genus of algae

Tetraedron is a genus of green algae in the family Hydrodictyaceae. It may also be spelled as Tetraëdron.

<i>Trebouxia</i> Genus of algae

Trebouxia is a unicellular green alga. It is a photosynthetic organism that can exist in almost all habitats found in polar, tropical, and temperate regions. It can either exist in a symbiotic relationship with fungi in the form of lichen or it can survive independently as a free-living organism alone or in colonies. Trebouxia is the most common photobiont in extant lichens. It is a primary producer of marine, freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. It uses carotenoids and chlorophyll a and b to harvest energy from the sun and provide nutrients to various animals and insects.

Actinochloridaceae is a family of green algae, in the order Chlamydomonadales.

Chlorotetraedron is a genus of green algae, in the family Neochloridaceae. The name may also be written as Chlorotetraëdon. It is found as freshwater plankton or in soil.

Follicularia is a genus of green algae, in the family Schizochlamydaceae. It is found in terrestrial habitats, mainly soil.

<i>Chlorokybus</i> Genus of basal green algae

Chlorokybus is a multicellular (sarcinoid) genus of basal green algae or charophyte. It has been classified as the sole member of the family Chlorokybaceae, which is the sole member of the order Chlorokybales, in turn the sole member of the class Chlorokybophyceae. It grows on soil and rock surfaces, and is rare.

Bracteamorpha is a genus of green algae in the order Sphaeropleales, and is the only genus in the family Bracteamorphaceae. It contains a single species, Bracteamorpha trainorii.

Asterochloris is a genus of green algae in the family Trebouxiophyceae. It is a common photobiont in lichen, occurring in the thalli of more than 20 lichen genera worldwide. Asterochloris is distinguishable from the morphologically similar genus Trebouxia, primarily due to its deeply lobed chloroplast, the placement of the chloroplast along the cell's periphery before the initiation of zoospore or aplanospore formation, and its tendency to primarily reproduce asexually through the production of aplanospores.

References

  1. ↑ van den Hoek C, Mann, D.G., Jahns, H.M. (1995). Algae: An Introduction to Phycology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 455.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Sahoo A (2022-01-10). "Reproduction in Algae". Biology Learner. Retrieved 2024-04-29.
  3. 1 2 "Reproduction in Algae". Biocyclopedia. Retrieved 20 April 2018.
  4. ↑ Thompson RH (1952). "A New Genus and New Records of Algae in the Chlorococcales". American Journal of Botany. 39 (6): 365–367. doi:10.1002/j.1537-2197.1952.tb14287.x. JSTOR   2438780.
  5. 1 2 3 Ru IT (2020). "Chlorella vulgaris: a perspective on its potentialfor combining high biomass with high valuebioproducts". Applied Phycology. 1 (1): 2–11. Bibcode:2020APcgy...1....2R. doi: 10.1080/26388081.2020.1715256 – via ResearchGate.
  6. ↑ Pascher A (1939). Dr. L. Rabenhorst's Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz: Heterokonten. Leipzig: E. Kummer. p. 827. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.100894.
  7. 1 2 3 Anderson R, Lewin R (March 7, 2024). "algae". Britannica.
  8. ↑ "Definition of AUTOSPORE". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2024-03-11.
  9. ↑ Pickett-Heaps JD (1970-09-01). "Mitosis and autospore formation in the green algaKirchneriella lunaris". Protoplasma. 70 (3): 325–347. doi:10.1007/BF01275761. ISSN   1615-6102.
  10. 1 2 Yamagishi T, Yamaguchi H, Suzuki S, Horie Y, Tatarazako N (2017-02-02). "Cell reproductive patterns in the green alga Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata (=Selenastrum capricornutum) and their variations under exposure to the typical toxicants potassium dichromate and 3,5-DCP". PLOS ONE. 12 (2): e0171259. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1271259Y. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0171259 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   5289587 . PMID   28152022.
  11. ↑ Liu J, Chen F (2016), Posten C, Feng Chen S (eds.), "Biology and Industrial Applications of Chlorella: Advances and Prospects", Microalgae Biotechnology, vol. 153, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–35, doi:10.1007/10_2014_286, ISBN   978-3-319-23808-1, PMID   25537445 , retrieved 2024-04-29
  12. ↑ Yamamoto M, Fujishita M, Hirata A, Kawano S (2004-08-01). "Regeneration and maturation of daughter cell walls in the autospore-forming green alga Chlorella vulgaris (Chlorophyta, Trebouxiophyceae)". Journal of Plant Research. 117 (4): 257–264. doi:10.1007/s10265-004-0154-6. ISSN   1618-0860. PMID   15108033.
  13. ↑ Manaher S (2023). "How To Use "Autospore" In A Sentence: Masterful Usage Tips". The Content Authority.
  14. ↑ Lakna (May 19, 2017). "Difference Between Zoospores and Aplanospores". PEDIAA– via ResearchGate.
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