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Baum test (also known as the "Tree test" or the "Koch test") is a projective test that is used extensively by psychologists around the world. [1] "Baum" is the German word for tree. It reflects an individual's personality and their underlying emotions by drawing a tree and then analyzing it. [2]
In 1952, Karl Koch interpreted patterns according to principles of handwriting analysis after asking the subject to draw a tree. He attributed the method to Emil Jucker, who clinically analyses the forms of trees. [3] The contents it analyzed include the size of trees, the elements of trees (trunk, crown, branches), the ground and the prosperity of trees. The Baum test is used as a clinical method for personality testing and expressing conflicts, especially for assessing personality in the developmental age. [4] Nowadays, the Baum test is also used in clinical research like diagnosing cognitive disorder. [5] [6]
The first step is to let the participant draw a tree on a paper. In some cases, participants are also asked to write a short essay about the drawn tree. [7] A psychologist or a psychiatrist will then evaluate the various aspects of the drawing as well as the individual's behavior or comments while completing the test. The evaluation is based on standard criteria and scored from "very immature" to "very mature" while the essay is graded from advanced, normal, and backwards. [7]
It is suggested by J.H. Plokker that the type of tree an individual draws relates to the structure of the psyche or unconscious itself or that it symbolizes one's personality as it can project self-image. [8]
According to Koch and Jucker, they focus on interpreting parts of trees. Here is the analysis raised by them: [2]
Two forms of analysis are used to evaluate and interpret the Baum test.
Since drawing is nonverbal character, it has effectively overcome the language barriers in different countries. In 1966, Wayne Dennis analyzed children's drawings and found that they are great indicators of group values and cognitive functioning. [9] Though familiarity is a factor children choose to depict, they would also draw things they valued (wishes and desires). He concluded that drawing as a projective technique provides children with a good opportunity to express their personal feelings and their attitudes towards others and their environment. Research conducted in 2007 encouraged people who work with young people to use drawing as a child-centered procedure and evaluation tool, though during the process of interpretation expect a level of subjectivity. [10]
This projective test is also used for reflecting human personality constructs, while it is an introspective, self-report questionnaire. It represents the unconsciousness of personality and the assessment by responding to a stimulus (drawing the tree). According to Ursula Avé-Lallemant, the size of the tree and the width of the trunk symbolize "a sense of self-expression and the amount of mental energy". [11] The position of a tree symbolizes "how one perceives and relates to the mental space and time in which one lives."
There are many conducted research provides evidence of the Baum test. Roberto and his colleagues researched the Baum test with a group of mild cognitively impaired (MCI) patients and controls. [5] By comparing their tree-drawing test with the control groups, they found that the trunk-to-crown ratio of trees drawn by MCI is greater than controls, while their size of trees is significantly smaller than controls. This indicates its inverse relationship with the ability to use language, which also supported by previous studies. [12] One research on Alzheimer's disease also shown the difference in drawing patterns. [6] By founding the MCI drawn trees are different from those drawn by healthy subjects with a progressive differentiation from degrees of cognitive impairment, it suggests the Baum test could help make diagnosis of cognitive related diseases.
Another recent implication of Baum test is for diagnosing depression disorders. [13] It has found statistical significance difference in canopy widths. Besides, it could help to find the characteristics of eating disorders. [14] Researcher measured the height and width of the trunk and the crown and details of how drawings were processed.
The advantages of the Baum test are that it can be administered quickly (5–10 minutes), is suitable for both individual and group testing, and that it offers the clinician an opportunity to observe the patient's motor skills. [2]
Additionally, as a nonverbal tool for psychodiagnosis, it provides personality information for psychotherapy without causing trauma to the subject.
However, researchers have pointed out that like other projective tests, the Baum test lacks scientific evidence supporting its analysis. The methods of analysis depend on individual subjective judgement. Additionally, the test is typically not used on patients with very low IQs because their drawings tend to be quite meager. [15]
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a psycho-social intervention that aims to reduce symptoms of various mental health conditions, primarily depression and anxiety disorders. Cognitive behavioral therapy is one of the most effective means of treatment for substance abuse and co-occurring mental health disorders. CBT focuses on challenging and changing cognitive distortions and their associated behaviors to improve emotional regulation and develop personal coping strategies that target solving current problems. Though it was originally designed to treat depression, its uses have been expanded to include many issues and the treatment of many mental health conditions, including anxiety, substance use disorders, marital problems, ADHD, and eating disorders. CBT includes a number of cognitive or behavioral psychotherapies that treat defined psychopathologies using evidence-based techniques and strategies.
Neuropsychology is a branch of psychology concerned with how a person's cognition and behavior are related to the brain and the rest of the nervous system. Professionals in this branch of psychology often focus on how injuries or illnesses of the brain affect cognitive and behavioral functions.
Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) is an evidence-based psychotherapy that began with efforts to treat personality disorders and interpersonal conflicts. Evidence suggests that DBT can be useful in treating mood disorders and suicidal ideation as well as for changing behavioral patterns such as self-harm and substance use. DBT evolved into a process in which the therapist and client work with acceptance and change-oriented strategies and ultimately balance and synthesize them—comparable to the philosophical dialectical process of thesis and antithesis, followed by synthesis.
Thematic apperception test (TAT) is a projective psychological test developed during the 1930s by Henry A. Murray and Christiana D. Morgan at Harvard University. Proponents of the technique assert that subjects' responses, in the narratives they make up about ambiguous pictures of people, reveal their underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the social world. Historically, the test has been among the most widely researched, taught, and used of such techniques.
In psychology, a projective test is a personality test designed to let a person respond to ambiguous stimuli, presumably revealing hidden emotions and internal conflicts projected by the person into the test. This is sometimes contrasted with a so-called "objective test" / "self-report test", which adopt a "structured" approach as responses are analyzed according to a presumed universal standard, and are limited to the content of the test. The responses to projective tests are content analyzed for meaning rather than being based on presuppositions about meaning, as is the case with objective tests. Projective tests have their origins in psychoanalysis, which argues that humans have conscious and unconscious attitudes and motivations that are beyond or hidden from conscious awareness.
Cognitive restructuring (CR) is a psychotherapeutic process of learning to identify and dispute irrational or maladaptive thoughts known as cognitive distortions, such as all-or-nothing thinking (splitting), magical thinking, overgeneralization, magnification, and emotional reasoning, which are commonly associated with many mental health disorders. CR employs many strategies, such as Socratic questioning, thought recording, and guided imagery, and is used in many types of therapies, including cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT). A number of studies demonstrate considerable efficacy in using CR-based therapies.
Art therapy is a distinct discipline that incorporates creative methods of expression through visual art media. Art therapy, as a creative arts therapy profession, originated in the fields of art and psychotherapy and may vary in definition. Art therapy encourages creative expression through painting, drawing, or modelling. It may work by providing a person with a safe space to express their feelings and allow them to feel more in control over their life.
Dysthymia, also known as persistent depressive disorder (PDD), is a mental and behavioral disorder, specifically a disorder primarily of mood, consisting of similar cognitive and physical problems as major depressive disorder, but with longer-lasting symptoms. The concept was used by Robert Spitzer as a replacement for the term "depressive personality" in the late 1970s.
The mini–mental state examination (MMSE) or Folstein test is a 30-point questionnaire that is used extensively in clinical and research settings to measure cognitive impairment. It is commonly used in medicine and allied health to screen for dementia. It is also used to estimate the severity and progression of cognitive impairment and to follow the course of cognitive changes in an individual over time; thus making it an effective way to document an individual's response to treatment. The MMSE's purpose has been not, on its own, to provide a diagnosis for any particular nosological entity.
Cognitive slippage is considered a milder and sub-clinical presentation of formal thought disorder observed via unusual use of language. It is often identified when a person attempts to make tangential connections between concepts that are not immediately understandable to listeners. When observed repeatedly, this is taken as evidence for unusual, maladaptive or illogical thinking patterns.
In the study of psychology, neuroticism has been considered a fundamental personality trait. In the Big Five approach to personality trait theory, individuals with high scores for neuroticism are more likely than average to be moody and to experience such feelings as anxiety, worry, fear, anger, frustration, envy, jealousy, pessimism, guilt, depressed mood, and loneliness. Such people are thought to respond worse to stressors and are more likely to interpret ordinary situations, such as minor frustrations, as appearing hopelessly difficult. The responses can include maladaptive behaviors, such as dissociation, procrastination, substance use, etc., which aids in relieving the negative emotions and generating positive ones.
Openness to experience is one of the domains which are used to describe human personality in the Five Factor Model. Openness involves six facets, or dimensions: active imagination (fantasy), aesthetic sensitivity, attentiveness to inner feelings, preference for variety (adventurousness), intellectual curiosity, and challenging authority. A great deal of psychometric research has demonstrated that these facets or qualities are significantly correlated. Thus, openness can be viewed as a global personality trait consisting of a set of specific traits, habits, and tendencies that cluster together.
The Draw-a-Person test is a psychological projective personality or cognitive test in which the test subject uses simple art supplies to produce depictions of people. It is used to evaluate children and adolescents for a variety of purposes.
The Psychopathy Checklist or Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised, now the Psychopathy Checklist—revised (PCL-R), is a psychological assessment tool that is commonly used to assess the presence and extent of the personality trait psychopathy in individuals—most often those institutionalized in the criminal justice system—and to differentiate those high in this trait from those with antisocial personality disorder, a related diagnosable disorder. It is a 20-item inventory of perceived personality traits and recorded behaviors, intended to be completed on the basis of a semi-structured interview along with a review of "collateral information" such as official records. The psychopath tends to display a constellation or combination of high narcissistic, borderline, and antisocial personality disorder traits, which includes superficial charm, charisma/attractiveness, sexual seductiveness and promiscuity, affective instability, suicidality, lack of empathy, feelings of emptiness, self-harm, and splitting. In addition, sadistic and paranoid traits are usually also present.
Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is a neurocognitive disorder which involves cognitive impairments beyond those expected based on an individual's age and education but which are not significant enough to interfere with instrumental activities of daily living. MCI may occur as a transitional stage between normal aging and dementia, especially Alzheimer's disease. It includes both memory and non-memory impairments. The cause of the disorder remains unclear, as well as both its prevention and treatment, with some 50 percent of people diagnosed with it going on to develop Alzheimer's disease within five years. The diagnosis can also serve as an early indicator for other types of dementia, although MCI may remain stable or even remit.
The MCI Screen is a brief neuropsychological test checking for mild cognitive impairment (MCI).
Social anxiety is the anxiety and fear specifically linked to being in social settings. Some categories of disorders associated with social anxiety include anxiety disorders, mood disorders, autism spectrum disorders, eating disorders, and substance use disorders. Individuals with higher levels of social anxiety often avert their gazes, show fewer facial expressions, and show difficulty with initiating and maintaining a conversation. Social anxiety commonly manifests itself in the teenage years and can be persistent throughout life; however, people who experience problems in their daily functioning for an extended period of time can develop social anxiety disorder. Trait social anxiety, the stable tendency to experience this anxiety, can be distinguished from state anxiety, the momentary response to a particular social stimulus. Half of the individuals with any social fears meet the criteria for social anxiety disorder. Age, culture, and gender impact the severity of this disorder. The function of social anxiety is to increase arousal and attention to social interactions, inhibit unwanted social behavior, and motivate preparation for future social situations.
Rumination is the focused attention on the symptoms of one's mental distress, and on its possible causes and consequences, as opposed to its solutions, according to the Response Styles Theory proposed by Nolen-Hoeksema (1998).
The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) is a widely used screening assessment for detecting cognitive impairment. It was created in 1996 by Ziad Nasreddine in Montreal, Quebec. It was validated in the setting of mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and has subsequently been adopted in numerous other clinical settings. This test consists of 30 points and takes 10 minutes for the individual to complete. The original English version is performed in seven steps, which may change in some countries dependent on education and culture. The basics of this test include short-term memory, executive function, attention, focus, and more.
Psychology encompasses a vast domain, and includes many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior. Below are the major areas of inquiry that taken together constitute psychology. A comprehensive list of the sub-fields and areas within psychology can be found at the list of psychology topics and list of psychology disciplines.
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