Tanner staging
Tanner staging can be used to assess the developmental state of the breasts during puberty, from childhood (Tanner stage 1) to adulthood (Tanner stage 5). [2] [3] [4]
Breast measurement involves the measurement of the breasts for quantifying physical characteristics such as size, shape, and developmental state. [1] A variety of different approaches have been employed for measuring the breasts. [1]
Tanner staging can be used to assess the developmental state of the breasts during puberty, from childhood (Tanner stage 1) to adulthood (Tanner stage 5). [2] [3] [4]
Breast volume is a method of measuring the size of the breasts. [1] [5] A variety of techniques have been used to measure breast volume, including water displacement, plaster casting, medical imaging (e.g., mammography, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultrasound), and 3D scanning. [5] [1] There is substantial measurement error with many breast volume measures, but MRI imaging appears to have among the lowest error and hence to be the most accurate measure. [1] [5] However, 3D scanning might have the potential to become the new gold standard for clinical assessment. [6] [7] A limitation of 3D scanning is inaccuracy in the case of large and/or ptotic. [8]
In a normative study of breast volumes in women using 3D scanning, breast volumes were median 515 mL, mean 650 mL, interquartile range 310 to 850 mL, and range ~50 to 3,100 mL. [9] In transgender women, breast volume measured with 3D scanning has been reported to reach a plateau of around 100 mL (but with an apparent range of up to 750 mL) after 3 to 4 years of hormone therapy. [10] [11]
Breast volume has also been assessed with the BreastIdea Volume Estimator (BIVE), a freely available web application that uses user-provided photographs and anthropometric measurements to calculate estimations of breast volume. [12] [13] [14] It has been studied and validated in normal women and men, women with macromastia or gigantomastia, and transgender women. [12] [13] [15] [16] [17] Average breast volumes have been reported to be 272 to 283 mL (range 99–694 mL in one study) in normal women, [13] [15] 888 mL in women with macromastia or gigantomastia, [15] and 158 to 190 mL (range 20–788 mL) in transgender women after 6 months of hormone therapy. [17] The resolution and accuracy of the BIVE is less than with 3D scanners. [12]
Breast circumference, also known as bust circumference, is a measurement of the circumference of the torso at the level of the breasts. It has been used as a measure of breast size in normal young women, [18] in women with pregnancy, [19] [20] and in transgender women. [21] [22] [23] [24] Breast circumference is generally measured using a flexible fabric tape measure, and is the circumference across the breasts over the nipples to the back. The breast–chest difference is breast circumference minus band or underbust circumference and is used in the determination of bra cup size.
Breast–chest difference, also known as bust–band difference, is a measurement used for quantifying breast size. It is calculated as bust circumference minus the band or underbust circumference. Breast–chest difference has been used in the measurement of breast development in transgender women on feminizing hormone therapy. [25] [10] [26] [27] [23]
Bra size, also bra cup size, is a measurement of the breasts for selecting bras, taking into account breast size and torso circumference. It is determined using the breast–chest difference, with 12–14 cm equating to an A cup, 14–16 cm a B cup, 16–18 cm a C cup, and 18–20 cm a D cup. [ citation needed ]
Breast hemicircumference, also sometimes referred to as breast width or as breast circumference (incorrectly), is an anthropometric measure of the breasts which has been used in studies to assess breast development and breast size, including in transgender women. [29] [25] [30] [28] [31] [32] [33] It is the medial horizontal length (measured with a flexible tape measure) from one side of the breast to the other side and running over the nipple. [30] [28] [31] A measurement of 7 inches is said to correspond to an A cup, 8 inches to a B cup, 9 inches to a C cup, and so on, with each further 1-inch increment or decrement corresponding to one cup size up or down. [31]
The breast unit is a measurement of the breasts in which the breasts are measured horizontally and vertically and then these values are multiplied to given an overall idea of breast size. [34] [35] [36] It was devised by Vincent J. Capraro and has been used in pediatric endocrinology to quantify breast development. [34] [35] [36] The method has been described as follows: [36]
At times it is desirable to know whether or not a girl's breasts are developing normally by observing their increasing size over a period of several months. In some cases it is also advantageous to determine whether or not differences in the sizes of the two breasts are of clinical significance. In order to more accurately measure breast size, one of us (V.J.C.) devised a technique for breast measurement. This technique may be used in following up the development of normal breasts as well as of breasts showing asymmetric development. With a centimeter tape measure, the breast is measured from 3 o'clock to 9 o'clock (Fig. 23-4, A) and from 12 o'clock to 6 o'clock (Fig. 23-4, B). These two measurements are multiplied, yielding a figure called the breast unit. Table 23-3 shows the typical spread of breast units in a normal adolescent.
The breast unit has also been used to quantify breast size in girls and women with complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (CAIS) and other individuals with disorders of sexual development. [37] [38] [39] It can also be reported unmultiplied (e.g., 16×14 cm to 41×31 cm in CAIS women). [37]
Other measurements of the breasts, like areolar diameter, can also be determined. [1]
The breast is one of two prominences located on the upper ventral region of the torso among humans and other primates. Both sexes develop breasts from the same embryological tissues. The relative size and development of the breasts is a major secondary sex distinction between males and females.
Mastectomy is the medical term for the surgical removal of one or both breasts, partially or completely. A mastectomy is usually carried out to treat breast cancer. In some cases, women believed to be at high risk of breast cancer have the operation as a preventive measure. Alternatively, some women can choose to have a wide local excision, also known as a lumpectomy, an operation in which a small volume of breast tissue containing the tumor and a surrounding margin of healthy tissue is removed to conserve the breast. Both mastectomy and lumpectomy are referred to as "local therapies" for breast cancer, targeting the area of the tumor, as opposed to systemic therapies, such as chemotherapy, hormonal therapy, or immunotherapy.
Anthropometry refers to the measurement of the human individual. An early tool of physical anthropology, it has been used for identification, for the purposes of understanding human physical variation, in paleoanthropology and in various attempts to correlate physical with racial and psychological traits. Anthropometry involves the systematic measurement of the physical properties of the human body, primarily dimensional descriptors of body size and shape. Since commonly used methods and approaches in analysing living standards were not helpful enough, the anthropometric history became very useful for historians in answering questions that interested them.
Gender-affirming surgery for female-to-male transgender people includes a variety of surgical procedures that alter anatomical traits to provide physical traits more comfortable to the trans man's male identity and functioning.
In medicine, enophthalmia describes eyes that are abnormally sunken into their sockets. This condition usually affects elderly persons. Surgery can be done to correct it. Bilateral progressive enophthalmos may be the presenting sign of metastatic breast carcinoma, even when local symptoms in the breast are absent.
The waist–hip ratio or waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) is the dimensionless ratio of the circumference of the waist to that of the hips. This is calculated as waist measurement divided by hip measurement. For example, a person with a 75 cm waist and 95 cm hips has WHR of about 0.79.
Donald Rudolf Laub Sr. was an American plastic surgeon and founder of Interplast, which led multidisciplinary teams on reconstructive surgery missions to developing countries.
Breast hypertrophy is a rare medical condition of the breast connective tissues in which the breasts become excessively large. The condition is often divided based on the severity into two types, macromastia and gigantomastia. Hypertrophy of the breast tissues may be caused by increased histologic sensitivity to certain hormones such as female sex hormones, prolactin, and growth factors. Breast hypertrophy is a benign progressive enlargement, which can occur in both breasts (bilateral) or only in one breast (unilateral). It was first scientifically described in 1648.
A traumatic neuroma is a type of neuroma which results from trauma to a nerve, usually during a surgical procedure. The most common oral locations are on the tongue and near the mental foramen of the mouth. They are relatively rare on the head and neck.
Bra size indicates the size characteristics of a bra. While there is a number of bra sizing systems in use around the world, the bra sizes usually consist of a number, indicating the size of the band around the woman's torso, and one or more letters that indicate the breast cup size. Bra cup sizes were invented in 1932 while band sizes became popular in the 1940s. For convenience, because of the impracticality of determining the size dimensions of each breast, the volume of the bra cup, or cup size, is based on the difference between band length and over-the-bust measurement.
Masculinizing hormone therapy, also known as transmasculine hormone therapy or female-to-male hormone therapy, is a form of hormone therapy and gender affirming therapy which is used to change the secondary sexual characteristics of transgender people from feminine or androgynous to masculine. It is a common type of transgender hormone therapy, and is predominantly used to treat transgender men and other transmasculine individuals who were assigned female at birth. Some intersex people also receive this form of therapy, either starting in childhood to confirm the assigned sex or later if the assignment proves to be incorrect.
Feminizing hormone therapy, also known as transfeminine hormone therapy, is hormone therapy and sex reassignment therapy to change the secondary sex characteristics of transgender people from masculine or androgynous to feminine. It is a common type of transgender hormone therapy and is used to treat transgender women and non-binary transfeminine individuals. Some, in particular intersex people, but also some non-transgender people, take this form of therapy according to their personal needs and preferences.
Human penises vary in size on a number of measures, including length and circumference when flaccid and erect. Besides the natural variability of human penises in general, there are factors that lead to minor variations in a particular male, such as the level of arousal, time of day, ambient temperature, anxiety level, physical activity, and frequency of sexual activity. Compared to other primates, including large examples such as the gorilla, the human penis is thickest, both in absolute terms and relative to the rest of the body. Most human penis growth occurs in two stages: the first between infancy and the age of five; and then between about one year after the onset of puberty and, at the latest, approximately 17 years of age.
Female body shape or female figure is the cumulative product of a woman's bone structure along with the distribution of muscle and fat on the body.
Breast development, also known as mammogenesis, is a complex biological process in primates that takes place throughout a female's life.
Flap surgery is a technique in plastic and reconstructive surgery where tissue with an intact blood supply is lifted from a donor site and moved to a recipient site. Flaps are distinct from grafts, which do not have an intact blood supply and relies on the growth of new blood vessels. Flaps are done to fill a defect such as a wound resulting from injury or surgery when the remaining tissue is unable to support a graft, or to rebuild more complex anatomic structures like breasts or jaws.
Transgender hormone therapy, also called hormone replacement therapy (HRT) or gender-affirming hormone therapy (GAHT), is a form of hormone therapy in which sex hormones and other hormonal medications are administered to transgender or gender nonconforming individuals for the purpose of more closely aligning their secondary sexual characteristics with their gender identity. This form of hormone therapy is given as one of two types, based on whether the goal of treatment is masculinization or feminization:
Perforator flap surgery is a technique used in reconstructive surgery where skin and/or subcutaneous fat are removed from a distant or adjacent part of the body to reconstruct the excised part. The vessels that supply blood to the flap are isolated perforator(s) derived from a deep vascular system through the underlying muscle or intermuscular septa. Some perforators can have a mixed septal and intramuscular course before reaching the skin. The name of the particular flap is retrieved from its perforator and not from the underlying muscle. If there is a potential to harvest multiple perforator flaps from one vessel, the name of each flap is based on its anatomical region or muscle. For example, a perforator that only traverses through the septum to supply the underlying skin is called a septal perforator. Whereas a flap that is vascularised by a perforator traversing only through muscle to supply the underlying skin is called a muscle perforator. According to the distinct origin of their vascular supply, perforators can be classified into direct and indirect perforators. Direct perforators only pierce the deep fascia, they don't traverse any other structural tissue. Indirect perforators first run through other structures before piercing the deep fascia.
Free-flap breast reconstruction is a type of autologous-tissue breast reconstruction applied after mastectomy for breast cancer, without the emplacement of a breast implant prosthesis. As a type of plastic surgery, the free-flap procedure for breast reconstruction employs tissues, harvested from another part of the woman's body, to create a vascularised flap, which is equipped with its own blood vessels. Breast-reconstruction mammoplasty can sometimes be realised with the application of a pedicled flap of tissue that has been harvested from the latissimus dorsi muscle, which is the broadest muscle of the back, to which the pedicle (“foot”) of the tissue flap remains attached until it successfully grafts to the recipient site, the mastectomy wound. Moreover, if the volume of breast-tissue excised was of relatively small mass, breast augmentation procedures, such as autologous-fat grafting, also can be applied to reconstruct the breast lost to mastectomy.
Nipple/Areola prostheses are made of silicone by breast prosthesis manufacturers and anaplastologists for breast cancer survivors who were treated for breast cancer with a mastectomy. Prostheses can be worn weeks after a mastectomy, breast reconstruction, or even nipple reconstruction. As an inexpensive and convenient alternative to surgery, patients may choose to wear them anytime during treatment. Patients who ultimately find nipple prostheses thought that they should be informed of them during the consultation prior to mastectomy.