Calvin Johnson (anesthesiologist)

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Calvin Johnson is an American anesthesiologist and professor of anesthesiology at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, California. Born and raised in Egelston Township, Muskegon, Michigan, Johnson attended Oakridge High School, where he excelled in multiple sports and was a first-team Associated Press all-state basketball player. He went on to play point guard at Dartmouth College, earning Academic All-American honors and ranked second for assists in the Ivy League during his senior year.

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After completing his undergraduate degree in biochemistry at Dartmouth in 1981, Johnson earned his medical degree from the Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth in 1985. He completed his residency in anesthesiology at Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston Children's Hospital, and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center in 1989. Following his residency, he became Chief of Obstetrical Anesthesia at Hutzel Hospital of Wayne State University in Detroit, a position he held for six years before being appointed Chairman of the Department of Anesthesiology at King/Drew Medical Center in Los Angeles in 1996. He served as Dean of the College of Medicine at Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science from 2001–2002.

Johnson has been a staff anesthesiologist at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center since 2000 and has contributed significantly to the field through research and clinical studies. He has studied clinical competence training for anesthesiology residents, particularly in fiberoptic laryngoscopy and endotracheal intubation, and he has published research on the effectiveness of epidural anesthesia in improving labor outcomes. Additionally, his investigations into embolic phenomena during total hip arthroplasty have informed best practices in surgical techniques. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Johnson was a member of the Cedars-Sinai Medical Center COVID-19 Airway Team and Invasive Line Placement ICU Team. He has advocated for COVID-19 vaccine education, especially within the Black community, emphasizing the importance of combating vaccine hesitancy through outreach and education.

Early life and education

Johnson was born and raised in Egelston Township, Muskegon, Michigan, on an 11-acre farm as one of seven children. He faced significant adversity when his father died in a factory accident when he was just five years old. [1] He experienced racial prejudice as a child in Michigan. [2]

High school

He attended Oakridge High School, where he played multiple sports, influenced by his coaches John Swinburne and Jack Schugars. [3] [4] He played on the varsity basketball team in 1975. [5] He ran cross country at Oakridge, ran track and field, [6] and played football his senior season at Oakridge. [7] In 1977, he was a first-team Associated Press all-state basketball player [8] and received honorable mention all-state accolades in football from the Detroit Free Press. [4] He was named to the Western Michigan Conference All-Conference Basketball Team for two seasons from 1975 to 1977. [9]

He was recruited by Michigan State Spartans men's basketball's coach Jud Heathcote as a point guard at the same time as Magic Johnson. [1] Schugars ultimately connected Johnson with then Detroit Pistons Head Coach Herb Brown who encouraged him to attend Dartmouth College. [10] In 2022, he was inducted into the Muskegon Area Sports Hall of Fame. [4] [11]

Dartmouth College

Although he received athletic scholarship offers from other colleges, Johnson chose to attend Dartmouth College in 1977, where he played point guard for the basketball team. [12] During his freshman year, he contributed minutes to Dartmouth Big Green men's basketball. [13] Ahead of the 1980–1981, Johnson and Larry Lawrence (basketball) were named co-captains. [14] He was voted the most valuable player in first Granite State Basketball Tournament. [15]

He became Dartmouth's second-leading scorer and ranked second in the Ivy League for assists during his senior year. [4] [16] His impressive academic and athletic performance earned him Academic All-American honors. [1] He graduated in 1981 with a degree in biochemistry. Following the 1980–1981 basketball season, he was awarded the Alvin F. "Doggie" Julian Award (For Spirit and Enthusiasm). [17]

Medical career

After completing his undergraduate degree, Johnson earned his medical degree from the Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth in 1985. After completing his medical education, he completed his residency in anesthesiology at Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston Children's Hospital, and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center in 1989. [18] Following his residency, he became Chief of Obstetrical Anesthesia at Hutzel Hospital of Wayne State University in Detroit, a position he held for six years. [1]

In 1996, Johnson was appointed chairman of the Department of Anesthesiology at King/Drew Medical Center in Los Angeles, a facility dedicated to serving underserved communities. [1] He served as Dean of the College of Medicine from 2001 – 2002. [19]

He has also been a staff anesthesiologist at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center since 2000. He has written poetry from his experiences working in trauma and general anesthesia. [20] [21] His experiences of racism as a child motivated him to address stereotypes and inequality in medicine and actively promoting diversity and inclusion. [2]

Research and clinical studies

While he was a Clinical Fellow in Anesthesia at Massachusetts General Hospital, he authored an article that examined the effectiveness of resident instruction in developing clinical competence for performing fiberoptic laryngoscopy and endotracheal intubation, highlighting the importance of hands-on training and mentorship in improving residents' skills. The study findings suggest that structured educational programs can significantly enhance residents' confidence and proficiency in these critical airway management techniques. [22] He has written about how using both preoperative and intraoperative skin surface warming techniques effectively prevents hypothermia in patients undergoing general anesthesia and surgery. [23]

Johnson's article on the role of epidural anesthesia in trial of labor discusses how epidural anesthesia provides significant pain relief during labor, improving maternal comfort and satisfaction. The article highlights its potential to enhance labor progress and increase the chances of vaginal delivery while also addressing considerations regarding maternal and fetal outcomes. [24] Johnson has written on the unique cardiovascular challenges and management strategies for pregnant patients, emphasizing the importance of multidisciplinary care to optimize maternal and fetal outcomes. [25] In "The airway in the obstetrical patient" he highlights the critical importance of meticulous evaluation and preparation for airway management in pregnant patients. It emphasizes that anesthetists must be familiar with a clear management plan for dealing with failed intubation to ensure the safety and well-being of both the mother and the baby during obstetrical anesthesia. [26]

In 1995, while at Hutzel Women's Hospital, Johnson published a study that examined the occurrence of embolic phenomena during revision total hip arthroplasty (THA) using transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) to compare cemented and cementless techniques. The study found that cemented THA procedures have a higher incidence of emboli compared to cementless procedures. It highlights the importance of intraoperative monitoring and careful selection of surgical methods based on patient risk factors to minimize embolic complications. TEE proved effective in detecting emboli in real-time, aiding in surgical decision-making and patient management. [27]

An article by Johnson and Bulleova on pediatric anesthesia for cardiac catheterization and electrophysiology studies reviews the unique challenges and considerations in anesthetizing children for these procedures. It discusses the specific physiological differences in pediatric patients, the importance of appropriate anesthetic techniques, and the need for careful monitoring to ensure safety and comfort. The authors emphasize a multidisciplinary approach to optimize care and procedural outcomes for pediatric patients undergoing cardiac interventions. [28]

The article "Sickle Cell Disease, Anesthesia, and Sammy Sickler" discusses the complex challenges that arise when managing patients with sickle cell disease during emergency surgery. It emphasizes the importance of accurate diagnosis, thorough history and physical examination, timely evaluation of laboratory values, and a multidisciplinary team approach involving anesthesiologists, surgeons, hematologists, pediatricians, obstetricians, and internists. Key considerations include choosing an appropriate anesthetic based on the patient's clinical condition and maintaining a safe perioperative environment to avoid acidosis, hypoxia, and dehydration, thereby reducing morbidity and mortality. [29]

He has written about the unique challenges of treating geriatric patients. [30] [31] He contributed to "One-Lung Anesthesia Update," which provided a comprehensive overview of the latest advancements, techniques, and considerations in the practice of one-lung anesthesia. [32]

COVID-19 pandemic

Calvin Johnson was a member of the Cedars-Sinai Medical Center COVID-19 Airway Team and Invasive Line Placement ICU Team. [33] He worked with the hospital's intubation team at the outset of the pandemic. [10] Johnson and his colleagues at Cedars emphasized the importance of creating a dedicated line team for critically ill COVID-19 patients, utilizing a multidisciplinary approach to maximize resource utilization by assembling specialized healthcare teams and implementing standardized protocols for invasive procedures. [34]

He has been an advocate for COVID-19 vaccine education, particularly within the Black community. He spoke with NPR reporter Allison Aubrey regarding vaccine hesitancy in this community during a segment that aired on Morning Edition. [35] Having witnessed patients die from COVID-19, he emphasizes the importance of ongoing education and outreach to combat fear and skepticism surrounding vaccines. [36] Johnson has argued that COVID-19 vaccines, especially the mRNA versions from Pfizer and Moderna, are safe and beneficial for pregnant women and their unborn babies, outweighing any minimal risks. [33] In a Los Angeles Sentinel editorial, he emphasized the need for educating expecting mothers about the vaccine's safety to encourage vaccination and protect maternal and fetal health. [33]

Personal life

Johnson and his wife Elaine have three children. They serve as deacons at their church South Bay Church of Christ. [2]

He has been actively involved in community service through various initiatives, both locally and internationally. He and his family have participated in numerous projects organized by HOPE worldwide, an arm of the International Churches of Christ. In 2004, he and his family assisted at a HOPE worldwide clinic in Mexico City, where he examined patients and his daughter translated from Spanish. [1] In 2008, they visited India to support local workers and assess the needs of schools and an orphanage, as well as a newly acquired school. [1] In 2010, he visited the Sihanouk Hospital Center of HOPE in Cambodia, performing surgeries and teaching medical procedures to the staff. [1] In the United States, he has raised over $100,000 through "Hoops for Hope," a basketball fundraiser supporting the Cambodian hospital. [1]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tracheal intubation</span> Placement of a tube into the trachea

Tracheal intubation, usually simply referred to as intubation, is the placement of a flexible plastic tube into the trachea (windpipe) to maintain an open airway or to serve as a conduit through which to administer certain drugs. It is frequently performed in critically injured, ill, or anesthetized patients to facilitate ventilation of the lungs, including mechanical ventilation, and to prevent the possibility of asphyxiation or airway obstruction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Laryngoscopy</span> Endoscopy of the larynx

Laryngoscopy is endoscopy of the larynx, a part of the throat. It is a medical procedure that is used to obtain a view, for example, of the vocal folds and the glottis. Laryngoscopy may be performed to facilitate tracheal intubation during general anaesthesia or cardiopulmonary resuscitation or for surgical procedures on the larynx or other parts of the upper tracheobronchial tree.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cedars-Sinai Medical Center</span> Hospital in California, United States

Cedars-Sinai Medical Center is a non-profit, tertiary, 915-bed teaching hospital and multi-specialty academic health science center located in Los Angeles, California. Part of the Cedars-Sinai Health System, the hospital has a staff of over 2,000 physicians and 10,000 employees, supported by a team of 2,000 volunteers and more than 40 community groups. As of 2022–23, U.S. News & World Report ranked Cedars-Sinai among the top performing hospitals in the United States. Cedars-Sinai is a teaching hospital affiliate of David Geffen School of Medicine at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), which was ranked in the top 20 on the U.S. News 2023 Best Medical Schools: Research.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spinal anaesthesia</span> Form of neuraxial regional anaesthesia

Spinal anaesthesia, also called spinal block, subarachnoid block, intradural block and intrathecal block, is a form of neuraxial regional anaesthesia involving the injection of a local anaesthetic or opioid into the subarachnoid space, generally through a fine needle, usually 9 cm (3.5 in) long. It is a safe and effective form of anesthesia usually performed by anesthesiologists that can be used as an alternative to general anesthesia commonly in surgeries involving the lower extremities and surgeries below the umbilicus. The local anesthetic with or without an opioid injected into the cerebrospinal fluid provides locoregional anaesthesia: true anaesthesia, motor, sensory and autonomic (sympathetic) blockade. Administering analgesics in the cerebrospinal fluid without a local anaesthetic produces locoregional analgesia: markedly reduced pain sensation, some autonomic blockade, but no sensory or motor block. Locoregional analgesia, due to mainly the absence of motor and sympathetic block may be preferred over locoregional anaesthesia in some postoperative care settings. The tip of the spinal needle has a point or small bevel. Recently, pencil point needles have been made available.

Awareness under anesthesia, also referred to as intraoperative awareness or accidental awareness during general anesthesia (AAGA), is a rare complication of general anesthesia where patients regain varying levels of consciousness during their surgical procedures. While anesthesia awareness is possible without resulting in any long-term memory of the experience, it is also possible for victims to have awareness with explicit recall, where they can remember the events related to their surgery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Epiglottitis</span> Inflammation of the epiglottis

Epiglottitis is the inflammation of the epiglottis—the flap at the base of the tongue that prevents food entering the trachea (windpipe). Symptoms are usually rapid in onset and include trouble swallowing which can result in drooling, changes to the voice, fever, and an increased breathing rate. As the epiglottis is in the upper airway, swelling can interfere with breathing. People may lean forward in an effort to open the airway. As the condition worsens, stridor and bluish skin may occur.

The American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) is an educational, research and scientific association of physicians organized to raise the standards of the medical practice of anesthesiology and to improve patient care.

In the United States, anesthesia can be administered by physician anesthesiologists, an anesthesiologist assistant, or nurse anesthetist.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Olive View–UCLA Medical Center</span> Hospital in California, United States

Olive View–UCLA Medical Center is a hospital, funded by Los Angeles County, located in the Sylmar neighborhood of Los Angeles, California. It is one of the primary healthcare delivery systems in the north San Fernando Valley, serving the area's large working-class population. Olive View is also the closest county hospital serving the Antelope Valley after High Desert Hospital was converted to an urgent care clinic in 2003.

Paul Frederick White, FANZCA is a researcher in anesthesiology, research consultant at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center at Los Angeles, retired professor and former holder of the Margaret Milam McDermott Distinguished Chair of Anesthesiology at The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, and the author and editor of several journals and textbooks on the subject. With over 450 peer-reviewed publications and authorship in 9 anesthesiology textbooks, White has helped shape and revolutionize the field of ambulatory anesthesia and intravenous anesthesia.

David L. Reich is an American academic anesthesiologist, who has been President & Chief Operating Officer of The Mount Sinai Hospital, and President of Mount Sinai Queens, since October 2013.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of general anesthesia</span>

Throughout recorded history, attempts at producing a state of general anesthesia can be traced back to the writings of ancient Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Egyptians, Indians, and Chinese. Despite significant advances in anatomy and surgical technique during the Renaissance, surgery remained a last-resort treatment largely due to the pain associated with it. However, scientific discoveries in the late 18th and early 19th centuries paved the way for the development of modern anesthetic techniques.

Jay N. Gordon is an American pediatrician, lecturer, and author. He is well-known within the anti-vaccine movement for his promotion of vaccine hesitancy. He does encourage vaccinating but at the discretion of the parent. He is also a long-time advocate of breastfeeding; he became a member of the International Health Advisory Council of the La Leche League in 2005.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">No Pain Labor & Delivery – Global Health Initiative</span> Non-for-profit organization

No Pain Labor & Delivery – Global Health Initiative is a non-for-profit organization. Founded in 2006, the program focuses on correcting the unnecessarily high caesarean delivery rate and the poor utilization of neuraxial labor analgesia in China.

Obstetric anesthesia or obstetric anesthesiology, also known as ob-gyn anesthesia or ob-gyn anesthesiology, is a sub-specialty of anesthesiology that provides peripartum pain relief (analgesia) for labor and anesthesia for cesarean deliveries ('C-sections').

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Frank Moya</span> American physician

Frank Moya was an American anesthesiologist, businessman, and educator. He was widely recognized for his research in obstetric anesthesia and newborn physiology, and joined the University of Miami School of Medicine's Department of Anesthesiology as the youngest department chairman in the country, at the age of 33. Moya also held several prestigious national and state Anesthesiology positions and founded the Frank Moya Continuing Education Programs.

Seshagiri Rao Mallampati is an Indian anesthesiologist. He is best known for proposing the eponymous Mallampati score in 1985, a non-invasive method to assess the ease of endotracheal intubation.

Richard Mark Levitan is an American emergency medicine physician and businessperson. He is a clinical professor of medicine at Dartmouth College and a practicing physician at the Littleton Regional Hospital. He also runs a company that creates materials and runs events to teach emergency airway management.

Beverley Anne Orser is a Canadian anesthesiologist. As a professor at the University of Toronto, Orser was elected a member of the National Academy of Medicine for "her discovery of the unique pharmacological properties of extrasynaptic GABA-A receptors and their mechanistic role in anesthetic- and inflammation-induced impairment of memory, and for her leadership in academic anesthesiology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">19 to Zero</span> Canadian communications initiative

19 to Zero is a not-for-profit behavioural sciences initiative based in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Hosted at the University of Calgary, the public–private partnership is made up of around 500 members including public health specialists, academics, behavioural psychologists, marketers and multimedia creators. Its purpose is to increase confidence in vaccines for COVID-19 and other diseases by tackling vaccine hesitancy. The group publishes materials on its website and through partner organizations, including videos, billboards, presentations, brochures and in-person events.

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  2. 1 2 3 Pelham, Victoria. "Nourishing Faith and Racial Equity". Cedars Sinai.
  3. ↑ Dave, LeMieux (2009-06-06). "Oakridge's Jack Schugars' impact goes beyond the gridiron". mlive. Retrieved 2024-08-03.
  4. 1 2 3 4 "Muskegon Area Sports Hall of Fame inducts another solid class of athletic standouts | Local Sports Journal". 2022-05-26. Retrieved 2024-08-03.
  5. ↑ Shoup, Jim (Jan 25, 1975). "Spartans Bow to Oakridge". The Ludington Daily News at Newspapers.com. Retrieved 2024-08-04.
  6. ↑ "MCC Scores at Relays". The Ludington Daily News at Newspapers.com. Retrieved 2024-08-04.
  7. ↑ Wilson, George (Sep 10, 1976). "Oakridge, Montague WMC Football Favorites". The Ludington Daily News at Newspapers.com. Retrieved 2024-08-04.
  8. ↑ Associated Press (Mar 23, 1977). "1977 AP Class C All-State Cage Team". Battle Creek Enquirer at Newspapers.com. Retrieved 2024-08-04.
  9. ↑ Shook, Richard. "Central Puts 3 on Team". The Ludington Daily News at Newspapers.com.
  10. 1 2 "The Intentional and Inspirational Journey of Dr. Calvin Johnson". academicallamerica.com. Retrieved 2024-08-03.
  11. ↑ "Muskegon Area Sports Hall of Fame Induction Ceremonies Scheduled". City of Muskegon. 2022-06-14. Retrieved 2024-08-03.
  12. ↑ "Ivy League Leaders". Ithaca Journal, via newspapers.com. Feb 27, 1981. Retrieved 2024-08-04.
  13. ↑ "Big Green Purpled". Valley News at Newspapers.com. Retrieved 2024-08-04.
  14. ↑ "Green Hoop Captains Chosen". Valley News at Newspapers.com. Retrieved 2024-08-04.
  15. ↑ "Dartmouth Tops UNH for Granite Title". Concord Monitor at Newspapers.com. Retrieved 2024-08-04.
  16. ↑ "1980–81 Men's Ivy League Season Summary". College Basketball at Sports-Reference.com. Retrieved 2024-08-04.
  17. ↑ "Team Awards". Dartmouth College Athletics. Retrieved 2024-08-04.
  18. ↑ Bell, Jason. "LibGuides at the CDU Health Sciences Library: Deans of the College of Medicine—Historic Overview: Calvin Johnson, MD, 2001–2002". cdrewu.libguides.com. Retrieved 2024-08-03.
  19. ↑ "LibGuides at the CDU Health Sciences Library: Deans of the College of Medicine—Historic Overview: Calvin Johnson, MD, 2001–2002". cdrewu.libguides.com. Retrieved 2024-08-04.
  20. ↑ Johnson, Calvin (2022). "Three Lives Changed Forever". Anesthesiology. 137 (6): 742–744. doi:10.1097/ALN.0000000000004314. PMID   35881764.
  21. ↑ Johnson, Calvin (2023). "Same Smile as She…". Anesthesia & Analgesia. 136 (1): 190. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000006026. ISSN   0003-2999. PMID   36534721.
  22. ↑ Johnson, Calvin; Roberts, James T. (1989-01-01). "Clinical competence in the performance of fiberopt laryngoscopy and endotracheal intubation: A study of resident instruction". Journal of Clinical Anesthesia. 1 (5): 344–349. doi:10.1016/0952-8180(89)90073-1. ISSN   0952-8180. PMID   2627408.
  23. ↑ Johnson, Calvin (2004). "Preoperative Combined with Intraoperative Skin Surface Warming Avoids Hypothermia Caused by General Anesthesia and Surgery". Survey of Anesthesiology. 48 (3): 162. doi:10.1097/01.sa.0000125841.48382.24. ISSN   0039-6206.
  24. ↑ Johnson, Calvin; Oriol, Nancy (1990-11-01). "The Role of Epidural Anesthesia in Trial of Labor". Regional Anesthesia: The Journal of Neural Blockade in Obstetrics, Surgery, & Pain Control. 15 (6): 304–308. doi:10.1136/rapm-00115550-199015060-00007 (inactive 1 November 2024). ISSN   0146-521X. PMID   2291886.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  25. ↑ Osibamiro-Sedun, Adebambo; Johnson, Calvin (2003). "Cardiac Considerations for the Obstetric Patient". Seminars in Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia. 7 (2): 167–173. doi:10.1177/108925320300700205. ISSN   1089-2532.
  26. ↑ Johnson, C.; Lawlor, M.; Weiner, M. (1994). "The airway in the obstetrical patient". AANA Journal. 62 (2): 149–159. ISSN   0094-6354. PMID   8085418.
  27. ↑ Johnson, C.; Mason, L.; Kleinhomer, K.; Fitzgerald, R. (1995). "Determination of Embolic Phenomena during Cemented versus Cementless Revision Total Hip Arthroplasty using Transesophageal Echocardiography". Anesthesia & Analgesia. 80 (4): SCA92. doi:10.1213/00000539-199504001-00091. ISSN   0003-2999.
  28. ↑ Bulleova, Slavka; Johnson, Calvin (2001). "Pediatric Anesthesia for Cardiac Catheterization and Electrophysiology Studies". Seminars in Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia. 5 (1): 142–146. doi:10.1177/108925320100500118. ISSN   1089-2532.
  29. ↑ Ashley, Sharon; Johnson, Calvin; Sessions, Cecili (1998-06-01). "Sickle cell disease, anesthesia, and sammy sickler". Seminars in Anesthesia, Perioperative Medicine and Pain. 17 (2): 130–138. doi:10.1016/S0277-0326(98)80036-6. ISSN   0277-0326.
  30. ↑ Williams, Joanne; Johnson, Calvin (2007). "Geriatric Trauma". Emergency Resuscitation, Perioperative Anesthesia, Surgical Management, Volume I: 773–790. doi:10.3109/9781420052442-42. ISBN   978-0-429-11881-4.
  31. ↑ Johnson, Calvin (2000-03-30). "Emergency Anesthesia". Acute Emergencies and Critical Care of the Geriatric Patient. CRC Press. ISBN   978-0-8247-4653-7.
  32. ↑ Mirzabeigi, Edwin; Johnson, Calvin; Ternian, Alen (2005). "One-Lung Anesthesia Update". Seminars in Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia. 9 (3): 213–226. doi:10.1177/108925320500900304. ISSN   1089-2532. PMID   16151554.
  33. 1 2 3 Johnson, Calvin. "An Emphasis on Safety: Addressing COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy among pregnant women". Los Angeles Sentinel.
  34. ↑ Nawathe, Pooja; Wong, Robert; Pollock, Gabriel; Green, Jack; Kissen, Michael; Ng, Phillip; Cohen, Samuel; Barron, Joel; Robert, Stephen; Slingwine, Christy; Frank, Paul; Navab, Kaveh; Kim, Doran; Yang, Michael; Gouvea, Tyler (2022). "Creation of a dedicated line team for critically ill patients with COVID-19: A multidisciplinary approach to maximize resource utilization during the COVID-19 pandemic". The Journal of Vascular Access. 23 (3): 348–352. doi: 10.1177/1129729821991754 . ISSN   1129-7298. PMID   33541202.
  35. ↑ Aubrey, Allison. "Half Of U.S. Adults Have Gotten A Vaccine, But COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy Remains". NPR: Morning Edition.
  36. ↑ "NPR: COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy". Cedars Sinai Hospital.
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