Related Research Articles
Sadness is an emotional pain associated with,or characterized by,feelings of disadvantage,loss,despair,grief,helplessness,disappointment and sorrow. An individual experiencing sadness may become quiet or lethargic,and withdraw themselves from others. An example of severe sadness is depression,a mood which can be brought on by major depressive disorder or persistent depressive disorder. Crying can be an indication of sadness.
Grief is the response to loss,particularly to the loss of someone or some living thing that has died,to which a bond or affection was formed. Although conventionally focused on the emotional response to loss,grief also has physical,cognitive,behavioral,social,cultural,spiritual and philosophical dimensions. While the terms are often used interchangeably,bereavement refers to the state of loss,while grief is the reaction to that loss.
Learned helplessness is the behavior exhibited by a subject after enduring repeated aversive stimuli beyond their control. It was initially thought to be caused by the subject's acceptance of their powerlessness,by way of their discontinuing attempts to escape or avoid the aversive stimulus,even when such alternatives are unambiguously presented. Upon exhibiting such behavior,the subject was said to have acquired learned helplessness.
The five stages of grief model states that those experiencing grief go through a series of five emotions:denial,anger,bargaining,depression and acceptance. Although commonly referenced in popular culture,studies have not empirically demonstrated the existence of these stages,and the model has been considered by some to be outdated and unhelpful in explaining the grieving process. Another popular gives stages of reactions to grief is Parkes 5 stages,they are alarm,searching,mitigation,anger and guilt,and gaining a new identity.
Depressive realism is the hypothesis developed by Lauren Alloy and Lyn Yvonne Abramson that depressed individuals make more realistic inferences than non-depressed individuals. Although depressed individuals are thought to have a negative cognitive bias that results in recurrent,negative automatic thoughts,maladaptive behaviors,and dysfunctional world beliefs,depressive realism argues not only that this negativity may reflect a more accurate appraisal of the world but also that non-depressed individuals' appraisals are positively biased.
Integrative complexity is a research psychometric that refers to the degree to which thinking and reasoning involve the recognition and integration of multiple perspectives and possibilities and their interrelated contingencies.
Caring in intimate relationships is the practice of providing care and support to an intimate relationship partner. Caregiving behaviours are aimed at reducing the partner's distress and supporting their coping efforts in situations of either threat or challenge. Caregiving may include emotional support and/or instrumental support. Effective caregiving behaviour enhances the care-recipient's psychological well-being,as well as the quality of the relationship between the caregiver and the care-recipient. However,certain suboptimal caregiving strategies may be either ineffective or even detrimental to coping.
Grief counseling is a form of psychotherapy that aims to help people cope with the physical,emotional,social,spiritual,and cognitive responses to loss. These experiences are commonly thought to be brought on by a loved person's death,but may more broadly be understood as shaped by any significant life-altering loss.
Self-enhancement is a type of motivation that works to make people feel good about themselves and to maintain self-esteem. This motive becomes especially prominent in situations of threat,failure or blows to one's self-esteem. Self-enhancement involves a preference for positive over negative self-views. It is one of the three self-evaluation motives along with self-assessment and self-verification . Self-evaluation motives drive the process of self-regulation,that is,how people control and direct their own actions.
In psychology,avoidance coping is a coping mechanism and form of experiential avoidance. It is characterized by a person's efforts,conscious or unconscious,to avoid dealing with a stressor in order to protect oneself from the difficulties the stressor presents. Avoidance coping can lead to substance abuse,social withdrawal,and other forms of escapism. High levels of avoidance behaviors may lead to a diagnosis of avoidant personality disorder,though not everyone who displays such behaviors meets the definition of having this disorder. Avoidance coping is also a symptom of post-traumatic stress disorder and related to symptoms of depression and anxiety. Additionally,avoidance coping is part of the approach-avoidance conflict theory introduced by psychologist Kurt Lewin.
In psychology,frustration is a common emotional response to opposition,related to anger,annoyance and disappointment. Frustration arises from the perceived resistance to the fulfillment of an individual's will or goal and is likely to increase when a will or goal is denied or blocked. There are two types of frustration:internal and external. Internal frustration may arise from challenges in fulfilling personal goals,desires,instinctual drives and needs,or dealing with perceived deficiencies,such as a lack of confidence or fear of social situations. Conflict,such as when one has competing goals that interfere with one another,can also be an internal source of frustration or annoyance and can create cognitive dissonance. External causes of frustration involve conditions outside an individual's control,such as a physical roadblock,a difficult task,or the perception of wasting time. There are multiple ways individuals cope with frustration such as passive–aggressive behavior,anger,or violence,although frustration may also propel positive processes via enhanced effort and strive. This broad range of potential outcomes makes it difficult to identify the original cause(s) of frustration,as the responses may be indirect. However,a more direct and common response is a propensity towards aggression.
Psychological hardiness,alternatively referred to as personality hardiness or cognitive hardiness in the literature,is a personality style first introduced by Suzanne C. Kobasa in 1979. Kobasa described a pattern of personality characteristics that distinguished managers and executives who remained healthy under life stress,as compared to those who developed health problems. In the following years,the concept of hardiness was further elaborated in a book and a series of research reports by Salvatore Maddi,Kobasa and their graduate students at the University of Chicago.
Self-blame is a cognitive process in which an individual attributes the occurrence of a stressful event to oneself. The direction of blame often has implications for individuals’emotions and behaviors during and following stressful situations. Self-blame is a common reaction to stressful events and has certain effects on how individuals adapt. Types of self-blame are hypothesized to contribute to depression,and self-blame is a component of self-directed emotions like guilt and self-disgust. Because of self-blame's commonality in response to stress and its role in emotion,self-blame should be examined using psychology's perspectives on stress and coping. This article will attempt to give an overview of the contemporary study on self-blame in psychology.
Monica Rose Biernat is a social psychologist known for her research on social judgment,stereotyping,prejudice,and discrimination. She is a University Distinguished Professor of Psychology at the University of Kansas.
Toni Falbo is a social psychologist known for her research on power dynamics in relationships,sibling status,and development of only children. She is a professor of Educational Psychology and Faculty Research Affiliate of the Population Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin.
Control deprivation describes the act of not giving an individual their desires,wants and needs in a deliberate way to control that individual. This is often achieved through acts such as lack of affection,acts indifferent and detached,failure to respond,emotionally distant,deliberately with holding sex,shifts blame to the individual and other techniques. Control deprivation can lead to a wide range of effects,such as causing depression,leading people to aggression,increased social class effects and the use of social stereotypes in making judgements on people as well as product acquisition. Lack of control over a situation can significantly affect a person,changing the way a person thinks and acts. This is often exploited by individuals,businesses and in other situations,however individuals are also very capable of finding alternative means to regain the control that was previously lost and regaining personal control.
Elizabeth Mitchell Altmaier is a counseling psychologist whose clinical and academic work has focused on issues related to overcoming life-threatening and traumatic circumstances. Altmaier is Professor Emeritus at the University of Iowa.
Roxane Cohen Silver is a social,health psychologist known for her work on personal,national,and international traumas and how people cope with these traumas. She holds the position of Vice Provost for Academic Planning &Institutional Research and Distinguished Professor of Psychological Science,Public Health,and Medicine at the University of California,Irvine.
Social constraints are a psychological term that can be defined as "any social condition that causes a trauma survivor to feel unsupported,misunderstood,or otherwise alienated from their social network when they are seeking social support or attempting to express trauma-related thoughts,feelings,or concerns." Social constraints are most commonly defined as negative social interactions which make it difficult for an individual to speak about their traumatic experiences. The term is associated with the social-cognitive processing model,which is a psychological model describing ways in which individuals cope and come to terms with trauma they have experienced. Social constraints have been studied in populations of bereaved mothers,individuals diagnosed with cancer,and suicide-bereaved individuals. There is evidence of social constraints having negative effects on mental health. They have been linked to increased depressive symptoms as well as post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in individuals who have experienced traumatic events. There seems to be a positive association between social constraints and negative cognitions related to traumatic events. Social constraints have also been linked to difficulties in coping with illness in people who have been diagnosed with terminal illness such as cancer.
Tracey A. Revenson is a health psychologist known for her research on how people cope with chronic illness and how people's lifestyles can affect their health and influence their coping mechanisms. She holds the position of Professor of Psychology at Hunter College and the CUNY Graduate Center,and directs the Coping and health in context (CHiC) lab.
References
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 "Camille Wortman: Distinguished Scientific Award for an Early Career Contribution to Psychology: 1980". American Psychologist. 36 (1): 84–87. 1981. doi:10.1037/h0078033. ISSN 1935-990X. PMID 16393085.
- 1 2 Sloat, Sarah. "Covid-19: A grief expert explains how to process the "unfathomable amount of loss"". Inverse. Retrieved 2020-12-07.
- 1 2 3 4 Goleman, Daniel (1989-08-08). "New Studies Find Many Myths about Mourning (Published 1989)". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 2020-12-07.
- 1 2 "Camille Wortman | Department of Psychology". www.stonybrook.edu. Retrieved 2020-10-22.
- ↑ "APA Distinguished Scientific Awards for an Early Career Contribution to Psychology". www.apa.org. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
- ↑ "Camille Wortman, PhD: Hidden No More – Northwestern University". www.northwestern.edu. Retrieved 2020-12-07.
- ↑ "PsychTree – Camille B. Wortman Family Tree". academictree.org. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
- 1 2 Wortman, Camille B.; Brehm, Jack W. (1975), "Responses to Uncontrollable Outcomes: An Integration of Reactance Theory and the Learned Helplessness Model", Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Elsevier, vol. 8, pp. 277–336, doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60253-1, ISBN 978-0-12-015208-7 , retrieved 2020-12-09
- ↑ Brockner, J., Gardner, M., Bierman, J., Mahan, T., Thomas, B., Weiss, W., ... & Mitchell, A. (1983). "The roles of self-esteem and self-consciousness in the Wortman-Brehm model of reactance and learned helplessness". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 45 (1): 199–209. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.45.1.199. ISSN 0022-3514. PMID 6886966.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Janoff-Bulman, Ronnie; Wortman, Camille B. (1977). "Attributions of blame and coping in the "real world": Severe accident victims react to their lot". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 35 (5): 351–363. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.35.5.351. ISSN 1939-1315. PMID 874739.
- ↑ Brickman, P., Ryan, K., & Wortman, C. B. (1975). "Causal chains: Attribution of responsibility as a function of immediate and prior causes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32(6), 1060–1067". content.apa.org. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.32.6.1060 . Retrieved 2020-12-09.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Senior, Jennifer (2020-11-24). "Opinion | Happiness Won't Save You". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 2020-12-09.
- ↑ "Project Information "Stress and Predictors of Mental Health Among Physicians" NIH RePORTER – NIH Research Portfolio Online Reporting Tools Expenditures and Results". projectreporter.nih.gov. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
- ↑ "Project Information "Widowhood, Bereavement and Coping" NIH RePORTER – NIH Research Portfolio Online Reporting Tools Expenditures and Results". projectreporter.nih.gov. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
- ↑ "Camille B. Wortman". faculty.webster.edu. Retrieved 2020-10-22.
- ↑ Wortman, Camille B.; Silver, Roxane C. (1989). "The myths of coping with loss". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 57 (3): 349–357. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.57.3.349. ISSN 1939-2117. PMID 2661609.
- ↑ Wortman, Camille B.; Silver, Roxane Cohen (2001), Stroebe, Margaret S.; Hansson, Robert O.; Stroebe, Wolfgang; Schut, Henk (eds.), "The myths of coping with loss revisited.", Handbook of bereavement research: Consequences, coping, and care., Washington: American Psychological Association, pp. 405–429, doi:10.1037/10436-017, ISBN 978-1-55798-736-5 , retrieved 2020-12-09
- ↑ Bonanno, George A.; Wortman, Camille B.; Lehman, Darrin R.; Tweed, Roger G.; Haring, Michelle; Sonnega, John; Carr, Deborah; Nesse, Randolph M. (2002). "Resilience to loss and chronic grief: A prospective study from preloss to 18-months postloss". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 83 (5): 1150–1164. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.5.1150. ISSN 1939-1315. PMID 12416919.
- ↑ Wortman, Camille B. (1984). "Social Support and the Cancer Patient: Conceptual and Methodologic Issues". Cancer. 53 (10 Suppl): 2339–2360. doi: 10.1002/cncr.1984.53.s10.2339 . PMID 6367944.
- ↑ Wortman, Camille B.; Dunkel-Schetter, Christine (1979). "Interpersonal Relationships and Cancer: A Theoretical Analysis". Journal of Social Issues. 35 (1): 120–155. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1979.tb00792.x.
- ↑ "Two Big Myths about Grief". Scientific American.
