Carbuncle (legendary creature)

Last updated

Carbuncle (Spanish : carbunclo, carbunco) is a legendary species of small animal in South American folklore, specifically in Paraguay [1] or the mining folklore of northern Chile. [2] The animal is said to have a red shining mirror, like hot glowing coal, on its head, thought to be a precious stone. [1] [1]

Contents

To the colonial Spaniards and Portuguese, the creature was a realization of the medieval lore that a dragon or wyvern concealed a precious gem in its brain or body (cf. § Early accounts).

Etymology

The English word carbuncle and the Spanish word carbunclo comes from the Latin carbunculus, meaning "little coal" (i.e. carbon). [2] [5] Carbunclo is used to refer to ruby because this gemstone's shine is said to resemble the glow of hot coal. [6] [5] However, it is garnet and not ruby that is said to have been the mineralogical identity of the so-called "carbuncle of the ancients". [1]

In turn, the creature was named after the red gem. It was around the 1600s, Spanish conquistadors [a] began to apply the name to a mysterious small animal they saw in South America. [1] [2]

In Spanish, the forms carbunclo, carbunco are attested, [7] [2] and rarely perhaps carbúnculo also. [2] [b] The term carbunclo/carbunco could also mean "firefly". [12]

The creature may sometimes called farol (meaning "lantern"), [11] though this might be considered a separate creature of the lore of the La Plata area in Argentina. [13]

Sources

Descriptions of the carbuncle came mostly from 17-19 century Spanish language sources which remained untranslated, [14] but an entry for "carbuncle" appeared in the English translated version of the Book of Imaginary Beings (1969) by Argentine author Jorge Luis Borges, [1] even though the entry on this creature was unincluded in the original Spanish edition. [4] Some later publication in Spanish, such as El Libro de la Mitología (1997/1998) by Chilean writer Renato Cárdenas. [5] [14]

Early accounts

The chaplain and explorer [c] Martín del Barco Centenera describes it in La Argentina (1602) as "a smallish animal, with a shining mirror on its head, like a glowing coal". [1] [16] As explained in the Book of Imaginary Beings, this explorer Barco Centenera "underwent many hardships hunting the reaches of Paraguayan rivers and jungles for the elusive creature; he never found it." [1]

The mirror in the carbuncle's head was likened to two lights observed by Spanish explorers in the Strait of Magellan by another conquistador Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, who also commented the gem was reminescent of the legend about a gemstone supposedly hidden in the brains of a dragon. Oviedo probably had read from the dragon lore given by Isidore of Seville in the 7th-century Etymologiae . [1]

18th century

Cover of Monstruo Prodigioso que apareceu no reino do Chile (1751) Monstruo chile(1751)-cover.jpg
Cover of Monstruo Prodigioso que apareceu no reino do Chile (1751)

In an account of the prodigious monster that appeared in the mountains of the Kingdom of Chile (published 1751), a group of men follow a moving source of light, which would dim and shine. One of the men explained his belief that "this light must come from some carbuncle [stone], often said to be the most precious stone in the world; [the stone] shone at night [lodged] on the head of a certain species of dragon, which was rarely caught, because it only grazed[?] at night by the light of that brilliant stone.. and when it sensed any noise, it covered the said stone with a membrane, which they had for that purpose, making everything dark.." [17] The village seniors, who dubbed the beast the "Bruto" ("brute") then discussed its capture in a trapping pit. [18]

Whether this beast should be considered the carbuncle monster per se, commentary on this beast has pointed to a connection between the Latin American carbuncle monster and the medieval lore that a vouivre ( guivre ≈wyvern) holds a carbuncle gem on its head. [21]

Friar Feijóo's Teatro crítico universal (1726–1739) writes on the current myth about a supposed creature with a "carbuncle" on its head, better called a "Astro Elemental" since it purports to be worth ten times as much as diamond. He believes travelers to the East invented or imported such fable that a King of Persia here or an Emperor of China there owned such a gem, but these were fabulous, and the gem was really only a (mined) ruby. [22] He also read Louis Moréri's encyclopedia entry under Dolomieu village that in 1680 a flying dragon had been slain which carried a carbuncle on its forehead. [23] Feijóo considered this a concocted old wive's tale or fable, but knows of a painting depicting the dragon of Dolomieu as cat-headed, and wonders if this might be the origin of the rumor, which he heard many times, of the animal with the carbuncle on its forehead bearing the shape of a cat. [22]

General description

The description of the animal vary; and "no one ever saw it well enough to know whether it was a bird or a mammal, whether is had feathers or fur". [1] [d] In Chile some say it moves like a firefly in the night. [2]

In Latin American lore, it is said to hold treasures inside so whoever manages to capture it will become wealthy. An alleged specimen seen in Ovalle on the Tulahuén hill in Coquimbo Region, Chile shone bright from the jewel and gold inside it. [25] [26] Or else, such gemlike gleam is supposed to be a guiding beacon to naturally occurring treasures. [28] In Catamarca Province, Argentina, the carbunclo is considered an imaginary animal that emits a much light from its head, and many believe the light source to be a carbuncle (gem). [11]

In Tarapacá, it is said to look like a bivalve [e] with a strong white-blue shine from within the shell which can be observed from a distance 1 league away; this "bivalve" has an acute sense of hearing, so that it can quickly detect humans approaching, and clam up inside its hard shell, and be mistaken for a stone. [29] [30] According to some, it is shaped like a corncob [f] but is articulated or jointed, and according to a witness who tracked it, it had bluish white light leaking from the joints, and had more than four limbs. [g] [25] [2]

It was a creature larger than a mouse but equipped with a hard shell, as crudely described by a certain laborer who was in too much of a hurry to kill it and seize the gold and riches from the shell before attracting the greedy notice of others. [h] [25] [26]

During the great drought of 1924–25 there were reported sightings of carbunclos on moonless nights. [2] Around 1925 a family of carbunclos was seen descending from the mountain of Tulahuén towards Río Grande (Coquimbo Region). [2]

Chilote mythology

In the Chilote mythology of southern Chile the carbunclo is said to be the "guardian of the metals". [2] [31] Descriptions of it vary, from a luminescent small dog, [31] a luminescent bivalve, [31] a cat with a luminescent lock or tuft under its beard [i] or a greenish-red fiery light reminiscent of fireflies. [31] Varitation in color has been explained as the creature's property of taking on the color of the metal or treasure it is guarding. [5] Whoever becomes owner of the luminous beard is said to become free from poverty. [7]

The carbunclo is said to manifest itself at night around the Southern Hemisphere winter solstice (late June). [31] [32]

Legend prescribes a certain method which needs to be followed in order to retrieve the carbunclo's treasure: First, a length of string, or a belt (or some personal belonging [5] ) [j] must be cast towards the carbunclo which will snatch it and disappear. The treasure seeker shall wait and return to the site in the morning before dawn, and search for signs of the thrown object, as the tail end of it should be sticking out of the ground to mark the buried treasure, and the spot will usually be the foot of a spiny calafate ( Berberis microphylla , Magellan barberry) shrub. [k] [31] The treasure seeker must wait again, until midnight, to dig it up in a certain prescribed way: with a new shovel in hand and in the company of an old widow holding a black cat. When he has dug a vara (Spanish yard) deep, he must throw the black cat into the hole, which will vanish, but soon reappear the woman's hands, and for each fresh yard dug, the cat must be tossed in again. If this ritual is not performed, the digger will die in the pit due to noxious gas. He must also not show any sign of fear the treasure will turn into rock. [31] [32]

Rational explanations

According to some, the carbuncle is explainable as a bivalve mollusk which glows because of bioluminescence from the " cauquil " ( Noctiluca scintillans ) or fireflies. [31]

In games

The carbuncle is a stock monster character in the Final Fantasy series of RPG game-playing, and "appears as a small creature, fox- or squirrel-like, with green or blue fur, depending on the game". [14] It also appeared in the game Madō Monogatari and Puyo Puyo , the latter having reused many of the monster characters from the former. [14]

Explanatory notes

  1. ↑ That is to say, 1602 book by Centenera, whom Borges considers a conquistador, since he calls Oviedo "another conquistador".
  2. ↑ The diacritically marked form carbúnculo may be left out, since this seems mostly used as a medical term i.e., "anthrax" [8] or the red tumor resultant [9] in 19th century publications. The English term "carbuncle" can also refer to anthrax or the red tumor caused by it. Sometimes the accented form denotes the gem. [10]
  3. ↑ A conquistador according to Borges who calls Oviedo "another conquistador".
  4. ↑ The legendary shiny winged bird, the alicanto , which leads ones to a cache of treasure, may be commingled or conflated with the carbuncle. [13] And in the 1751 text, the creature was thought to be a flying dragon. [24]
  5. ↑ The phrase "bivalve (bivalvo)", which indicates a mollusc, was not explicitly used originally by Vicuña. See quote below.
  6. ↑ Spanish: choclo , hence "corncob", though possibly better rendered as corn on the cob or maize ear
  7. ↑ The witness named as Eulogio Rojas, in the year 1879.
  8. ↑ Allegedly caught by Gaspar Huerta, making a canal in Las Tunas in Quile (i.e., in Coquimbo Province  [ es ]) The location is south of La Serena, Chile according to Montecino, who (citing Vicuña 1947) writes as if the man forgot everything, but even though the man did not notice the fine details and disposed of the carcass quickly to escape notice, and quoted as saying «era más grandecito que un ratón y que tenía concha» in Vicuña 1915 (after Silvestre 1904)
  9. ↑ Cavada (1914): "de la barba un mechón luminoso", [7] "en la barbilla un mechón luminoso" [2]
  10. ↑ Winkler calling it a "lasso" [32] appears to be embellishment.
  11. ↑ There is a Calafate (myth)  [ es ] about its origin attached to this plant.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vicuña</span> Wild South American camelid

The vicuña or vicuna is one of the two wild South American camelids, which live in the high alpine areas of the Andes; the other camelid is the guanaco, which lives at lower elevations. Vicuñas are relatives of the llama, and are now believed to be the wild ancestor of domesticated alpacas, which are raised for their coats. Vicuñas produce small amounts of extremely fine wool, which is very expensive because the animal can only be shorn every three years and has to be caught from the wild. When knitted together, the product of the vicuña's wool is very soft and warm. The Inca valued vicuñas highly for their wool, and it was against the law for anyone but royalty to wear vicuña garments; today, the vicuña is the national animal of Peru and appears on the Peruvian coat of arms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chango people</span> Ethnic group

The Changos, also known as Camanchacos or Camanchangos, are an Indigenous people or group of peoples who inhabited a long stretch of the Pacific coast from southern Peru to north-central Chile, including the coast of the Atacama Desert. Although much of the customs and culture of the Chango people have disappeared and in many cases they have been considered extinct, in Chile they are legally recognized as an original indigenous people since 2020, and about 4,725 people self-declare that they belong to this ethnic group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cueca</span> Family of musical styles

Cueca is a family of musical styles and associated dances from Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia. In Chile, the cueca holds the status of national dance, where it was officially declared as such by the Pinochet dictatorship on September 18, 1979.

El Caleuche or The Caleuche, also known by other names such as Buque de Arte or the Barcoiche, is a legendary ghost ship from Chilote mythology in southern Chile.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pampita</span> Argentine model, TV host, actress and dancer (born 1978)

Ana Carolina Ardohaín Dos Santos is an Argentine model, television personality, dancer, television host and actress. She is widely known by the nickname Pampita, a diminutive for La Pampa, the province where she was born.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Captaincy General of Chile</span> 1541–1818 territory of the Spanish Empire

The General Captaincy of Chile, Governorate of Chile, or Kingdom of Chile, was a territory of the Spanish Empire from 1541 to 1818 that was, initially, part of the Viceroyalty of Peru. It comprised most of modern-day Chile and southern parts of Argentina in the Patagonia region. Its capital was Santiago de Chile. In 1810 it declared itself independent, with the Spanish reconquering the territory in 1814, but in 1818 it gained independence as the Republic of Chile. It had a number of Spanish governors over its long history and several kings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbuncle (gemstone)</span> Red gemstone

Carbuncle is another name for a deep red almandine gemstone that has been cut with a smooth, convex face in a method called cabochon. Traditionally, the term referred to any red gemstone, most often a red garnet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alicanto</span> Bird from Chilean mythology

The Alicanto is a nocturnal mythological bird of the desert of Atacama, pertaining to Chilean mythology. Legend says that the alicanto's wings shine at night with beautiful metallic colors, and their eyes emit strange lights. The color of the wings may indicate the type of ore it eats, golden if from a gold mine and silvery if from a silver mine. Some descriptions also portray the color of the wings as copper-green. Also the cave-dwelling alicanto female will lay just two eggs, of gold or silver, depending on the ore it feeds on.

Many Basques arrived in Chile in the 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th and early 20th century from their homeland in northern Spain and parts of southwestern France, as conquistadors, soldiers, sailors, merchants, priests and labourers. Due to their traditional hard work and entrepreneurship, many of them rose to the top of the social scale and intermarried into the Chilean elites of Castilian descent, giving birth to the new Basque-Chilean aristocracy in Chile. This union is the basis of the Chilean elite of today. But also, they immensely contributed to the ethnic make up of the bulk of the Chilean population. The Basque settlers also intermarried into the Mestizo and Castizo population of central Chile in the middle of the colonial period to form the large Criollo population that exists in Chile today; Castizos create modern middle and lower classes. Many years after the first waves of settlers, thousands of Basque refugees fleeing Spanish Civil War in 1939 also settled and have many descendants in the country and have even intermarried with Spanish ethnic groups other than Castilians, and other European ethnic groups. An estimated 1.6 million (10%) to 5 million (30%) Chileans have a surname of Basque origin. This figure is to the least as the number of Basque descendence is great and plentiful. Due to Basque migration, Chile has a higher number of people of Basque descent than the Basque Country itself.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna</span> Chilean historian and politician

Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna was a Chilean writer, journalist, historian and politician. Vicuña Mackenna was of Irish and Basque descent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chilean silver rush</span> Silver rush in Chile (1830–1850)

Between 1830 and 1850, Chilean silver mining grew at an unprecedented pace which transformed mining into one of the country's principal sources of wealth. The rush caused rapid demographic, infrastructural, and economic expansion in the semi-arid Norte Chico mountains where the silver deposits lay. A number of Chileans made large fortunes in the rush and made investments in other areas of the economy of Chile. By the 1850s, the rush was in decline and lucrative silver mining definitively ended in the 1870s. At the same time, mining activity in Chile reoriented to saltpetre operations.

Sister Josefa de los Dolores Peña y Lillo Barbosa, OP was a Dominican nun and a self-taught writer of the Chilean Colonial period ascribed to Catholic confessional discourse produced by Indian nuns in South American cloisters during the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. She cultivated the epistolary genre, but also rarely wrote poetry.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Memoria Chilena</span>

Memoria Chilena is a Chilean cultural website which, according to its own words, "offers investigations and documents related to key topics which make up the Chilean identity, accessible through the areas of history, literature, social sciences, music, and visual arts." Memoria Chilena is, also, a virtual library, which preserves material from the Biblioteca Nacional de Chile and other institutions from the Dirección de Bibliotecas, Archivos y Museos (DIBAM).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eliana Navarro</span> Chilean poet (1920–2006)

Eliana Navarro Barahona was a Chilean poet. Her poetry was praised from an early date by literary critic Hernán Díaz Arrieta. Her poetry has been studied in various Chilean and foreign universities and her work appears in many national and foreign anthologies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sofía Eastman</span>

Sofía Eastman Cox, also known as Sofía Eastman de Huneeus, was a Chilean feminist writer and socialite. In 1915, she was a founder and president of the Ladies' Reading Circle, one of the first women's groups in Chile, dedicated "to promote and cultivate letters and the arts from the point of view of reception and production, and to improve the quality of education received by women." She also held the presidency of the Chilean Women's Red Cross from 1918 to 1921, an institution of which she was also one of the main benefactors and managers.

Juan Ignacio Méndez Aveiro is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Newell's Old Boys.

Sonia Cristina Montecino Aguirre is a Chilean writer and anthropologist. In 2013, she was awarded the Premio Nacional de Humanidades y Ciencias Sociales

In Chilean folklore the entierros are legendary treasures buried in different locations by different motives. The identity of the alleged burrowers vary from case to case, sometimes being indigenous peoples, pirates and privateers like Francis Drake or the Jesuits. A significant number of the entierro legends relate to the Spanish Conquest of Chile in the 16th century. Associated to this there is a significant folklore on how to unearth the entierros.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Joaquín Montecinos</span> Chilean footballer (born 1995)

Joaquín Alberto Montecinos Naranjo is a professional footballer who plays as a winger for O'Higgins on loan from Mexican club Tijuana. Born in Colombia, he plays for the Chile national team.

References

Citations

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Borges, translated by di Giovanni (1969), [3] quoted by Alelano (2014). [4]
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Montecino Aguirre, Sonia (2015). "Carbunclo (Carbunco, Carbúnculo)". Mitos de Chile: Enciclopedia de seres, apariciones y encantos (in Spanish). Catalonia. p. 130. ISBN   978-956-324-375-8. Reprint 2017 (unpaginated)
  3. ↑ Borges, Jorge Luis; Guerrero, Margarita (1969). "Carbuncle". Book of Imaginary Beings . Translated by di Giovanni, Norman Thomas. Dutton. pp. 51–52.
  4. 1 2 Arellano, Ignacio [in Spanish] (2014). "Un pasaje oscuro de Góngora aclarado: el animal tenebroso de la Soledad primera (vv. 64-83)" (PDF). Criticón (in Spanish). 120–121: 227.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Cárdenas, Renato (1998). "Carbunclo". El libro de la mitología: historias, leyendas y creencias mágicas obtenidas de la tradición oral (in Spanish). Punta Arenas: Editorial Atelí. p. 42.
  6. ↑ Montecino citing RAE 1992 (Real Academia Española) [2]
  7. 1 2 3 Cavada, Francisco Javier [in Spanish] (1914). "Carbunco o Carbunclo". Chiloé y los chilotes: estudios de folk-lore y lingüistica de la provincia de Chiloé (república de Chile) accompañados de un vocabulario de chilotismos y precedidos de una Breve reseña histórica del archipiélago ... Revista de folklore chileno 5 (in Spanish). Imprenta universitaria. p. 430.
  8. ↑ e.g. Littré, Emile (1893 )Dictionnaire de médecine: Glossaire Espagnol, s.v. " Carbúnculo "
  9. ↑ Nuevos elementos de cirujía y medicina (1846). 1: 212, s.v. " Carbúnculo "
  10. ↑ Barcia, Roque (1880) Primer diccionario general etimologico de la lengua espanola s.v. " Carbunclo" 1, 2 and "Carbúnculo "
  11. 1 2 3 Cavada, Francisco Javier [in Spanish] (1915). "Breve Estudio Lingüístico". Boletín de la Academia Chilena correspondiente de la Real Academia Española (in Spanish). 1. "Carbunclo". p. 400.
  12. ↑ Cavada (1914), p. 307 and Cavada (1915) [11]
  13. 1 2 Vicuña Cifuentes, Julio [in Spanish] (1914). "Mitos y supersticiones recogidos de la tradición oral chilena". Revista chilena de historia y geografía (in Spanish). 9 (13). I. El Alicanto, pp. 399–401. (= Reprint 1915 , pp. 1–2).
  14. 1 2 3 4 Escande, Jessy (2023). "Foreign Yet Familiar: J. L. Borges' Book of Imaginary Beings and Other Cultural Ferrymen in Japanese Fantasy Games". Games and Culture. 18 (1): 8–9. doi:10.1177/15554120211060258.
  15. ↑ de Angelis, Pedro, ed. (1910) [1836]. "La Argentina o la Conquista del Rio de la Plata, Poema Histórico por el Arcediano D. Martin del Barco Centenera". Coleccion de obras y documentos relativos a la historia antigua y moderna de las provincias del Rio de la Plata (in Spanish). Vol. 2 (2 ed.). J. Lajouane & cia. pp. 197–198.
  16. ↑

    «Y no lejos de aquí, por propios ojos,
    el carbunclo animal veces he visto.
    Ninguno me lo juzgue por antojos,
    que por cazar alguno anduve listo.
    Mil penas padecí, y mil enojos,
    en seguimiento de él, ¡mas cuán bien quisto
    y rico y venturoso se hallara
    aquel que Auagpitán vivo cazara!

    Un animalejo es, algo pequeño,
    con espejo en la frente reluciente
    como la brasa ignita en recio leño,
    corre y salta veloz y diligente.
    Así como le hirieren echa el ceño
    y entúrbiase el espejo de repente,
    pues para que el carbunclo de algo preste
    en vida el espejuelo sacan de éste.

    ¡Cuán triste se halló, y cuán penoso
    Rui Díaz Melgarejo! Que hallado
    había, a mí me dijo, de uno hermoso;
    perdiolo por habérsele volcado
    una canoa en que iba muy gozoso.
    Yo le vi lamentar su suerte y hado
    diciendo: «si el carbunclo no perdiera,
    con él al Gran Philipo yo sirviera».

    — Martín del Barco Centenera, Canto III, La Argentina [15]
  17. ↑ Costa (1751) , p. 10: "aquella luz devia ser de algum Carbunculo, do qual muitas vezes tinha ouvido contar que era huma pedra a mais preciosa que havia no mundo, e resplandecia de noite, e que esta se achava na cabeça de huma certa especie de Dragões, que rarissimamente se apanhavão, porque só pastavão de noite à luz daquella brilhante pedra, que em si tinhão; e que em sentindo qualquer rumor, cubrião a dita pedra com huma membrana, que para isso tinhão, e sicando tudo escuro.."
  18. ↑ Costa (1751), p. 12, quoted by Ramos (2005), p. 352.
  19. ↑ Ramos, Ana Margarida (2005). Os monstros na literatura de cordel portuguesa do século XVIII (PDF) (Ph.D.) (in Spanish). Universidade de Aveiro. p. I. El Alicanto, pp. 399–401.
  20. ↑ Izzi, Massimo (1996): Diccionario Ilustrado de los Monstruos (ángeles, diablos, ogros, dragones, sirenas y otras criaturas del imaginario), Palma de Mallorca, José J.de Olañeta Editor, p. 94
  21. ↑ Ramos (2005), note 357, [19] quoting Izzi (1996) on "basilisco"[?] [20]
  22. 1 2 Feijóo, Benito Jerónimo (1781). "Discurso Secundo §VI. Carbunclo". Theatro critico universal. Revista de folklore chileno 5 (in Spanish). Vol. 2. Madrid: por Blas Román, Impressor de la Real Academia de Derecho español y Público. pp. 49–50.
  23. ↑ Moréri, Louis (1689). "Dolomieu". Le grand dictionnaire historique (in French). Vol. 3. Paris: Chés Denys Thierry. p. 466. Cf. 1732 edition
  24. ↑ Costa (1751).
  25. 1 2 3 4 Vicuña Cifuentes, Julio [in Spanish] (1915). "Mitos y Superstiones recogidos de la tradición oral chilena (Conclusion)". Revista chilena de historia y geografía (in Spanish). 15 (19). "XL. El Carbunclo". pp. 404–406. Quoted from: Silvestre, José (19 February 1904). "Algo de mitología zoológica en Ovalle" El Obrero (of Ovalle).
  26. 1 2 Montecino citing Ponce (2001), [2] apparently Ponce Castillo, Bartolomé (2001) "Barrenado". 9°Concurso de Historias y Cuentos del Mundo Rural, de FUCOA.
  27. ↑ Coluccio, Félix [in Spanish] (1966). "El Caleuche". Enciclopedia folklórica americana e ibérica (in Spanish). L. Lasserre. p. 31.
  28. ↑ Coluccio (1966), [27] and later Montecino citing Coluccio (1999) [2] .
  29. ↑ Vicuña: "This animal is described as being made up of two shells or valves, which can open and close, with the glow or fire in the hidden central part. The light is very bright, blue-white and visible for more than a league este animal como compuesto de dos conchas o valvas, que puede abrir y cerrar, teniendo el brillo o fuego en la parte central oculta, etc.". [25]
  30. ↑ Montecino citing Plath (1973) and Ugalde (1993) [2]
  31. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Quintana Mansilla, Bernardo (1972). "El Carbunco". Chiloé mitológico (in Spanish).; Reprint 1987 , pp. 75–76.
  32. 1 2 3 Winkler, Lawrence (2015). Stories of the Southern Sea. First Choice Books. p. 54. ISBN   978-0-9947663-8-0.

Bibliography

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.