A chestnut orchard is an open stand of grafted chestnut (selva castanile) trees for fruit production. In this agroforestry system, trees are usually intercropped with cereals, hay or pasture.[1] These orchards are traditional systems in Canton of Ticino (Switzerland) and Northern Italy, where they are called “selva castanile”. Similar systems can also be found in the Mediterranean region, for example, in France, Greece, Portugal or Spain.[2][3]
Traditional chestnut orchard (or "selva castanile") in Valle di Peccia, Canton of Ticino, Switzerland.
History
The chestnut tree was once known as the "bread tree". This name has its origins in the fact that chestnuts were widespread in Southern Europe and the use of its fruit abundant, thanks also to its healthy nutritional values. In addition to the fruits, the chestnut tree offered people wood, leaves, flowers and permitted honey production, thus becoming in certain historical periods of vital importance for the rural population (hence the term "Chestnut Civilization", in the sense of material and cultural organization of the mountain people based on the cultivation of this tree).[4]
Already in the Middle Ages, the importance of this fruit in the diet of rural farmers was known, especially in times of isolation caused by the temporary disintegration of socio-economic structures or the trade network, which meant that the mountain population had to provide more autonomously for their supply.[4]
After the Middle Ages, in various mountainous regions of Italy and in Ticino, where the development of livelihoods such as fishing, trade or rich pastoralism was prevented, the local population specialized in the cultivation of chestnut orchards. In fact, the tree can also grow on marginal land, thus leaving the best land to cereal crops.[citation needed]
At the beginning of the 20th century, chestnuts were still the main staple food of the mountain people for most of the year.[4] An advantage of the chestnut tree was that its fruits could be dried and preserved until the next harvest, thus constituting a lifeline in the event of famine.[4] Around 1919, the author Merz[5] estimated the annual consumption at about 100kg per capita. Therefore, each mountain dweller depended directly on the production of two or more chestnut trees.[4]
The importance of chestnuts was also evident in various traditions and customs, such as the offering of chestnuts as a wedding gift or for funeral ceremonies, for paying taxes or as a life annuity for widows.[6]
Decline of the chestnut orchards
The neglect of chestnut production was accentuated in the 19th century due to various causes: [citation needed]
replacement of chestnuts as a staple food with maize and potatoes;
improvement of agricultural techniques;
modernisation of communication routes (particularly the railway network) which permitted a better food trade with people living far from the main centers;
emigration of rural people to industrial areas;
possibility of selling wood and bark from old chestnut trees for the production of tannin, used in the tanning industry.[4]
Afterwards, the decline worsened due to the two main diseases of the chestnut tree: the Ink disease and the Chestnut blight. The chestnut orchards were gradually abandoned because of the difficulties in maintaining them and their diminished yield. More and more orchards were invaded by other tree species, thus decreasing not only the area planted with chestnuts but also the vitality of the trees, which are unable to withstand the competition of wild individuals.[citation needed]
In addition, even the chestnut as food has suffered a fall in popularity, remaining important only as a base for cakes, as a side dish, for festive occasions or as roasted chestnuts. Today, per capita consumption is around 1kg per person per year.[4]
Restored chestnut orchard in Valle di Peccia, Canton of Ticino, Switzerland
The situation today
Since the nineties there has been a renewed interest in the chestnut orchards. More and more local authorities and populations have begun to restore abandoned chestnut orchards. The reasons for this were mainly the idea of a return to the traditions and cultural values of past civilizations, the need to enhance the rural landscape, or the willingness to create economic and tourist initiatives for rural areas. In addition, there was also the desire to rediscover the chestnut as a healthy and natural food, versatile and easy to use, that can be valorised in the context of the general return to organic products and to the genuine cuisine. Since then, many chestnut orchards have been recovered in Ticino and in the Italian Grisons and the foundations have been set for their multifunctional and sustainable management.[4]
Agroforestry
Chestnut orchard with donkeys grazing, Canton of Ticino, Switzerland
Agroforestry can be seen as a particular form of intercropping, where trees are integrated in the agricultural system. In the case of chestnut orchards, the production of the trees is central. Thus, this system can be considered as high value tree agroforestry.[2] A chestnut orchard can be divided in three different production levels. The trees are the first level, producing edible fruits, forage and wood. At the second level comes the companion crop, which can be either a cereal, mushroom or hay. And lastly, at the third level comes the animals, which can pasture under the trees; in such a case, the agroforestry system is more specifically called a silvopastoral system.[1]
Silvopastoral System
The silvopastoral system is one form of agroforestry, where one level of the three-level system is a pasture used for grazing domesticated animals.[7] In the north west of Spain for example, chestnut-silvopastoral systems are often linked to pork production.[8]
Products
The traditional chestnut orchards are multifunctional systems. They offer a high variety of products, ranging from chestnuts and animal products to ecosystem services such as protection against erosion.[citation needed]
The trees produce chestnuts, which are very interesting fruits with a high nutritional value,[4][9] leaves that can be used as fodder and litter and flowers that allow honey production.[4] The timber is much appreciated for many purposes due to its aesthetic qualities and its resistance to meteorological alteration.[9]
Chestnut orchards can be used for mushroom picking [10] or to grow berry bushes.[11] In Ticino, sheep and goats are traditionally grazing in the chestnut orchards, whereas in Spain, pigs are grazing and feeding on the left fruits during the fattening period.[8][3] Such systems also provide the animals with protection against weather hazards.[11]
As a silvopastoral system, chestnut orchards also provide many ecological, economical and social services.[1][2][12][13]
Economic potential
Thanks to their numerous high quality products, the chestnut orchards have an interesting economic potential. The market opportunities for chestnut forest products have recently begun to expand, after a long lasting decline due to sanitary problems and to reduced demand.[14] These new market opportunities have been created by the growing demand for natural products and technical innovation in the processing of these products.[citation needed]
The demand for traditional products, once only consumed by the low-income classes, is now perceived as more natural and environmentally friendly, and is widely growing in all highly industrialised countries.[14] However, the use of new technologies is essential to solve the issues related to the variability of production and the difficult preservation of the products of the chestnut orchards, so that they can take advantage of the opportunity offered by these new market niches.[14]
Technological improvement, in particular new developments in harvesting and processing technologies, have opened up new market opportunities for traditional chestnuts products, which can now be valorised and preserved at their best. Another interesting economical characteristic of the chestnut orchards is to provide both market (food, wood products, and fodder) and nonmarket goods and services (soil conservation, water and air quality improvement, biodiversity and scenic beauty), thus contributing to a diversified rural economy and effective environmental protection. For this reason, rural development policies are also creating favourable conditions to propagate chestnut initiatives. One of these initiatives is Agenda 2000, which promote the chestnuts orchards to diversificate the rural activities and obtain new sources of non-agricultural income in European Union member countries.[14]
Ecological aspects
This system has beneficial effects on soil. The deep roots of chestnut trees and planted shrubs can maintain a better soil structure. Therefore, water retention is improved and soil erosion reduced. Deep rooting can also lead to a reduction of nutrient leaching because deep roots are able to absorb the nutrients which leached below the rooting zone of the grasses.[15]
The system is reducing greenhouse gas emissions due to two different aspects. First the carbon loss of the growing plants and the soil is lower because of the properties of the system. Methane production of the feeding animals in silvopastoral systems is also reduced. Additionally, silvopastoral system can produce more meat per area because to highly efficient food production of the system. This may lead to a higher mitigation of greenhouse gases.[15]
The potential of carbon sequestration of chestnut orchards is high compared to pastures only or cropping fields.[7] This three-level system could play an important role in the mitigation of the climate change.[16]
Lastly, the chestnut orchard is able to increase the biodiversity on several trophic levels. First, the number of plants increased due to planted shrubs and chestnut trees. Secondly these plants provide niches for invertebrate and vertebrate species. For example, it is described that the number of birds increased in three-level systems compared to pasture and woodland systems. Moreover, it is shown that the number of earthworms and other soil invertebrates also rise with beneficial effects on soil properties.[15]
Social value
Recently, in many European countries, projects are being implemented to subsidise the restoring of chestnut growing areas, also for the role of chestnuts orchards in preserving landscape and country's traditional heritage.[17] The chestnut orchards and their products, despite having been abandoned for a long time, are still perceived by a large part of the European population as local and traditional products and are therefore well-accepted. Moreover, the chestnut orchards have recently been restored also for their aesthetic values, and in many countries there is a positive trade off between chestnut production and tourism.[14]
Challenges
Diseases
Historically, chestnut production decline was accompanied by the diffusion of two important diseases:
This latter one, which is a fungal pathogen, is now under control thanks to the spontaneous diffusion of a hypovirulent form of the disease.[11] In regard to the Ink disease, today this pathogen is less common but from time to time it is possible to assist to improvise death of entire orchards at a local scale.[4]
Nowadays, the recent problem of the Chestnut gall wasp (Dryocosmus kuriphilus Yasumatsu) should be overcome thanks to the introduction of its natural antagonist, Torymus sinensis Kamijo, provenient from China as well.[citation needed]
Another pathogen is Mycosphaerella maculiformis, a fungus which attacks the leaves which wilt and fall prematurely from the tree.[18] The trees do not die, but they are weakened and will produce less fruits.[citation needed]
Climate change
Nowadays, the biggest issue is climate change, and the more frequent very warm and dry or very cold and wet summers. In these climatic conditions, primary and secondary pathogen pressure is higher and therefore abundant harvests are put under risk. In 2003, the excessive heat during the summer caused tree leaves to wilt in July and August already, resulting in a poor chestnut production.[citation needed]
Trade-offs
The intercropping of chestnuts with other crops could lead to light competition due to the big canopy of chestnut trees.[2] As the system is more complex, the workload might be increased. Therefore, such systems have to be assessed carefully before being implemented.[citation needed]
1 2 Rigueiro-Rodríguez A., McAdam J., Mosquera-Losada M. R. (2008). Agroforestry in Europe: current status and future prospects. Springer Science & Business Media.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Merz (1919). Il castagno. Sua importanza economica, coltivazione e trattamento (in Italian). Berna: Ispettorato federale delle foreste, della caccia e della pesca.
↑ Lurati, O. (1971). "Abitudini alimentari della popolazione ticinese fino alla metà dell'Ottocento". Schweizerisches Archiv für Volkskunde (in Italian). 67, 1–3: 179–195.
↑ Mauricio R. M., Ribeiro R. S., Paciullo D. S. C. (2019). "Silvopastoral Systems in Latin America for Biodiversity, Environmental, and Socioeconomic Improvements". Agroecosystem Diversity. Elsevier. pp.287–297.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
1 2 3 4 5 Martins A., Marques G., Borges O. (2011). Management of chestnut plantations for a multifunctional land use under Mediterranean conditions: effects on productivity and sustainability. Conference paper. doi:10.1007/s10457-010-9355-2. hdl:10348/8699.{{cite conference}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Nieddu S. (2008). Studi sulla struttura delle popolazioni di Cryphonectria parasitica dei castagneti del centro Sardegna finalizzati alla selezione di ceppi ipovirulenti da utilizzare nella lotta biologica (in Italian). Università degli studi di Sassari, Facoltà di Agraria.
Related Research Articles
In agriculture, monoculture is the practice of growing one crop species in a field at a time. Monoculture is widely used in intensive farming and in organic farming: both a 1,000-hectare cornfield and a 10-ha field of organic kale are monocultures. Monoculture of crops has allowed farmers to increase efficiency in planting, managing, and harvesting, mainly by facilitating the use of machinery in these operations, but monocultures can also increase the risk of diseases or pest outbreaks. This practice is particularly common in industrialized nations worldwide. Diversity can be added both in time, as with a crop rotation or sequence, or in space, with a polyculture or intercropping.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to agriculture:
The chestnuts are the deciduous trees and shrubs in the genus Castanea, in the beech family Fagaceae. The name also refers to the edible nuts they produce. They are native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere.
A fruit tree is a tree which bears fruit that is consumed or used by animals and humans — all trees that are flowering plants produce fruit, which are the ripened ovaries of flowers containing one or more seeds. In horticultural usage, the term "fruit tree" is limited to those that provide fruit for human food. Types of fruits are described and defined elsewhere, but would include "fruit" in a culinary sense, as well as some nut-bearing trees, such as walnuts.
Sclerocarya birrea, commonly known as the marula, is a medium-sized deciduous fruit-bearing tree, indigenous to the miombo woodlands of Southern Africa, the Sudano-Sahelian range of West Africa, the savanna woodlands of East Africa and Madagascar.
Castanea sativa, the sweet chestnut, Spanish chestnut or just chestnut, is a species of tree in the family Fagaceae, native to Southern Europe and Asia Minor, and widely cultivated throughout the temperate world. A substantial, long-lived deciduous tree, it produces an edible seed, the chestnut, which has been used in cooking since ancient times.
Agroforestry is a land use management system that integrates trees with crops or pasture. It combines agricultural and forestry technologies. As a polyculture system, an agroforestry system can produce timber and wood products, fruits, nuts, other edible plant products, edible mushrooms, medicinal plants, ornamental plants, animals and animal products, and other products from both domesticated and wild species.
Acacia auriculiformis, commonly known as earleaf acacia, earpod wattle, auri, karuvel and aakashmani ,Australian Aboriginal Language Names: Jaminjung, Ngaliwurru, Nungali: Marnkilg. MalakMalak, Matngala: Darik. Mangarrayi, Yangman: Bunbunba (Mang), Bunbunbanga (Yang).. Ngarinyman: Marngilg. Wagiman: gengelk, genyelk.. Warray: jerrel
is a fast-growing, crooked, gnarly tree in the family Fabaceae. It is native to Australia, Philippines, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea. It grows up to 30 metres (98 ft) tall. Acacia auriculiformis has about 47,000 seeds per kilogram (21,000/lb).
Copernicia prunifera or the carnaúba palm or carnaubeira palm is a species of palm tree native to northeastern Brazil. Known by many as 'tree of life' because of its many uses, the Carnaúba is also the symbol tree of Ceará. The initiative to use it as a symbol vies to promote its conservation and sustainable use.
Organic fertilizers are fertilizers that are naturally produced. Fertilizers are materials that can be added to soil or plants, in order to provide nutrients and sustain growth. Typical organic fertilizers include all animal waste including meat processing waste, manure, slurry, and guano; plus plant based fertilizers such as compost; and biosolids. Inorganic "organic fertilizers" include minerals and ash. The organic-mess refers to the Principles of Organic Agriculture, which determines whether a fertilizer can be used for commercial organic agriculture, not whether the fertilizer consists of organic compounds.
Silvopasture is the practice of integrating trees, forage, and the grazing of domesticated animals in a mutually beneficial way. It utilizes the principles of managed grazing, and it is one of several distinct forms of agroforestry.
Multipurpose trees or multifunctional trees are trees that are deliberately grown and managed for more than one output. They may supply food in the form of fruit, nuts, or leaves that can be used as a vegetable; while at the same time supplying firewood, adding nitrogen to the soil, or supplying some other combination of multiple outputs. "Multipurpose tree" is a term common to agroforestry, particularly when speaking of tropical agroforestry where the tree owner is a subsistence farmer.
Irvingia gabonensis is a species of African trees in the genus Irvingia, sometimes known by the common names wild mango, African mango, or bush mango. They bear edible mango-like fruits, and are especially valued for their fat- and protein-rich nuts.
Social forestry is the management and protection of forests and afforestation of barren and deforested lands with the purpose of helping environmental, social and rural development. The term social forestry was first used in 1976 by The National Commission on Agriculture, when the government of India aimed to reduce pressure on forests by planting trees on all unused and fallow lands. It was intended as a democratic approach to forest conservation and usage, maximizing land utilization for multiple purposes.
Prosopis tamarugo, commonly known as the tamarugo, is a species of flowering tree in the pea family, Fabaceae, subfamilia Mimosoideae. It is only found in northern Chile, particularly in the Pampa del Tamarugal, some 70 km (43 mi) east of the city of Iquique. This bushy tree apparently grows without the benefit of rainfall, and it is thought to obtain some water from dew. Studies indicate it is a Phreatophyte; having deep roots that tap into ground water supplies. It also participates in hydraulic redistribution moving water from deeper levels to the upper and also reversing the process in times of severe drought.
Treculia africana is a tree species in the genus Treculia which can be used as a food plant and for various other traditional uses. The fruits are hard and fibrous, can be the size of a volleyball and weight up to 8.5 kg (19 lb). Chimpanzees have been observed to use tools to break the fruits into small pieces that they can eat. The fruits contain polyphenols.
Natural farming, also referred to as "the Fukuoka Method", "the natural way of farming", or "do-nothing farming", is an ecological farming approach established by Masanobu Fukuoka (1913–2008). Fukuoka, a Japanese farmer and philosopher, introduced the term in his 1975 book The One-Straw Revolution. The title refers not to lack of effort, but to the avoidance of manufactured inputs and equipment. Natural farming is related to fertility farming, organic farming, sustainable agriculture, agroecology, agroforestry, ecoagriculture and permaculture, but should be distinguished from biodynamic agriculture.
Centrosema pubescens, common name centro or butterfly pea, is a legume in the family Fabaceae, subfamily Faboideae, and tribe Phaseolae. It is native to Central and South America and cultivated in other tropical areas as a forage for livestock.
Agriculture in Switzerland, one of the economic sectors of the country, has developed since the 6th millennium BC and was the principal activity and first source of income until the 19th century. Framework of rural society, agriculture has as main factors the natural conditions (climate), the demographic evolution and agrarian structures. In Switzerland, it has become much diversified, despite the small size of the territory, owing to the geographical diversity of the country.
Tree hay is a source of animal fodder produced by harvesting the leaves and twigs of a variety of perennials, and in particular trees. It specifically refers to the practice of feeding the material to livestock directly after collection or more commonly after storing and sometimes drying the tree hay for a certain period of time. It hence does not include the browsing of trees and fodder hedges by livestock directly.
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