Cogmed

Last updated
Cogmed
Industry Cognitive training
Founded2001 (2001) in Stockholm, Sweden [1]
ProductsCogmed Working Memory Training
Parent Neural Assembly Int AB
Website cogmed.com

Cogmed is a cognitive training software program created in the lab of Torkel Klingberg, a neuroscientist at the Karolinska Institute. Torkel Klingberg was using it to present working memory challenges to people while he studied their brains using fMRI, to try to learn about neuroplasticity. [1] [2] When the studies appeared to show that the challenges improved working memory, Klingberg founded Cogmed in 2001, with financial backing from the Karolinska Institute and venture capitalists. [2] [3]

Contents

Cogmed's initial marketing was focused on helping people with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and expanded to other impairments of working memory, such as persons with learning disabilities, and people who had a stroke or other traumatic brain injury. [1] [3] [4]

In 2010, Cogmed was purchased by Pearson Education and became a part of the Pearson Clinical Assessment Group. [5] [6] Karolinska received 22 m SEK and double-digit royalties as part of the transaction. [7] In 2019, Cogmed was transferred back to the original founders. [8]

A 2012 meta-analysis of 23 research studies on seven different commercial and non-commercial working memory training techniques (including Cogmed) found that "working memory training programs give only near-transfer effects, and there is no convincing evidence that even such near-transfer effects are durable." [9] Another 2012 review of Cogmed found that many of the problem-solving or training tasks presented in Cogmed are not related to working memory, that many of the attention tasks are unrelated to ADHD, and that there is limited transfer to real-life manifestations of attention deficits, concluding "The only unequivocal statement that can be made is that Cogmed will improve performance on tasks that resemble Cogmed training." [10]

In the years following, several independent research groups have published studies supporting the original findings, and showing that Cogmed improves working memory and attention in children with ADHD, [11] [12] children post cancer treatment, [13] [14] [15] and stroke patients. [16] [17]

The largest Cogmed study to date(a randomized, controlled trial by independent researchers, including close to 600 typically developing children) found that Cogmed training led to improvements in “geometry skills, reading skills, Raven’s fluid IQ measure, the ability to inhibit prepotent impulses and self-regulation abilities”. [18] The study also found that, “3–4 years after the intervention, the children who received training [had] a roughly 16 percentage points higher probability of entering the academic track in secondary school”. [18]

The company's marketing efforts have been described in popular media. [19] A 2013 article in The New Yorker magazine said that brain training games are "bogus." [6] A later review in PNAS argued that the question “does cognitive training work” is similar to asking “does medicine cure disease”, and suggested that in order to determine the validity of the question, one needs to specify which type of cognitive training, for which group and for which purpose. [20]

A metanalysis published in 2023 by European ADHD Guidelines Group (EAGG) suggests that Cogmed training can lead to improvement in ADHD-related attention symptoms, however the authors state that "clinical effects were limited to small, setting specific, short-term effects". [21]

See also

Related Research Articles

Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily. It is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior. Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory, but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information. Working memory is a theoretical concept central to cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and neuroscience.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</span> Neurodevelopmental disorder

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by executive dysfunction occasioning symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity and emotional dysregulation that are excessive and pervasive, impairing in multiple contexts, and otherwise age-inappropriate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Methylphenidate</span> Central nervous system stimulant

Methylphenidate, sold under the brand names Ritalin and Concerta among others, is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant used medically to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and, to a lesser extent, narcolepsy. It is a primary medication for ADHD ; it may be taken by mouth or applied to the skin, and different formulations have varying durations of effect, commonly ranging from 2–4 hours. For ADHD, the effectiveness of methylphenidate is comparable to atomoxetine but modestly lower than amphetamines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neurofeedback</span> Type of biofeedback

Neurofeedback is a form of biofeedback that uses electrical potentials in the brain to reinforce desired brain states through operant conditioning. This process is non-invasive and typically collects brain activity data using electroencephalography (EEG). Several neurofeedback protocols exist, with potential additional benefit from use of quantitative electroencephalography (QEEG) or functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to localize and personalize treatment. Related technologies include functional near-infrared spectroscopy-mediated (fNIRS) neurofeedback, hemoencephalography biofeedback (HEG), and fMRI biofeedback.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nootropic</span> Compound intended to improve cognitive function

Nootropics, colloquially brain supplements, smart drugs and cognitive enhancers, are natural, semisynthetic or synthetic compounds which purportedly improve cognitive functions, such as executive functions, attention or memory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dopamine receptor</span> Class of G protein-coupled receptors

Dopamine receptors are a class of G protein-coupled receptors that are prominent in the vertebrate central nervous system (CNS). Dopamine receptors activate different effectors through not only G-protein coupling, but also signaling through different protein interactions. The neurotransmitter dopamine is the primary endogenous ligand for dopamine receptors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Executive functions</span> Cognitive processes necessary for control of behavior

In cognitive science and neuropsychology, executive functions are a set of cognitive processes that are necessary for the cognitive control of behavior: selecting and successfully monitoring behaviors that facilitate the attainment of chosen goals. Executive functions include basic cognitive processes such as attentional control, cognitive inhibition, inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Higher-order executive functions require the simultaneous use of multiple basic executive functions and include planning and fluid intelligence.

Brain training is a program of regular activities purported to maintain or improve one's cognitive abilities. The phrase “cognitive ability” usually refers to components of fluid intelligence such as executive function and working memory. Cognitive training reflects a hypothesis that cognitive abilities can be maintained or improved by exercising the brain, analogous to the way physical fitness is improved by exercising the body. Cognitive training activities can take place in numerous modalities such as cardiovascular fitness training, playing online games or completing cognitive tasks in alignment with a training regimen, playing video games that require visuospatial reasoning, and engaging in novel activities such as dance, art, and music.

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Lisdexamfetamine, most commonly sold under the brand name Vyvanse and Elvanse among others, is a stimulant medication that is used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adults and for moderate-to-severe binge eating disorder in adults. Lisdexamfetamine is taken by mouth. Its effects generally begin within two hours and last for up to 14 hours. In the United Kingdom, it is usually less preferred to methylphenidate for the treatment of children.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management options are evidence-based practices with established treatment efficacy for ADHD.

The n-back task is a continuous performance task that is commonly used as an assessment in psychology and cognitive neuroscience to measure a part of working memory and working memory capacity. The n-back was introduced by Wayne Kirchner in 1958. N-Back games are purported to be a training method to improve working memory and working memory capacity and also increase fluid intelligence, although evidence for such effects are lacking.

In psychology and neuroscience, executive dysfunction, or executive function deficit, is a disruption to the efficacy of the executive functions, which is a group of cognitive processes that regulate, control, and manage other cognitive processes. Executive dysfunction can refer to both neurocognitive deficits and behavioural symptoms. It is implicated in numerous psychopathologies and mental disorders, as well as short-term and long-term changes in non-clinical executive control. Executive dysfunction is the mechanism underlying ADHD Paralysis, and in a broader context, it can encompass other cognitive difficulties like planning, organizing, initiating tasks and regulating emotions. It is a core characteristic of ADHD and can elucidate numerous other recognized symptoms.

Working memory training is intended to improve a person's working memory. Working memory is a central intellectual faculty, linked to IQ, ageing, and mental health. It has been claimed that working memory training programs are effective means, both for treating specific medical conditions associated with working memory deficit, as and for general increase in cognitive capacity among healthy neurotypical adults.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inhibitory control</span> Cognitive process

Inhibitory control, also known as response inhibition, is a cognitive process – and, more specifically, an executive function – that permits an individual to inhibit their impulses and natural, habitual, or dominant behavioral responses to stimuli in order to select a more appropriate behavior that is consistent with completing their goals. Self-control is an important aspect of inhibitory control. For example, successfully suppressing the natural behavioral response to eat cake when one is craving it while dieting requires the use of inhibitory control.

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Memory improvement is the act of enhancing one's memory. Research on improving memory is driven by amnesia, age-related memory loss, and people’s desire to enhance their memory. Research involved in memory improvement has also worked to determine what factors influence memory and cognition. There are many different techniques to improve memory some of which include cognitive training, psychopharmacology, diet, stress management, and exercise. Each technique can improve memory in different ways.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Attentional control</span> Individuals capacity to choose what they pay attention to and what they ignore

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neurobiological effects of physical exercise</span> Neural, cognitive, and behavioral effects of physical exercise

The neurobiological effects of physical exercise involve possible interrelated effects on brain structure, brain function, and cognition. Research in humans has demonstrated that consistent aerobic exercise may induce improvements in certain cognitive functions, neuroplasticity and behavioral plasticity; some of these long-term effects may include increased neuron growth, increased neurological activity, improved stress coping, enhanced cognitive control of behavior, improved declarative, spatial, and working memory, and structural and functional improvements in brain structures and pathways associated with cognitive control and memory. The effects of exercise on cognition may affect academic performance in children and college students, improve adult productivity, preserve cognitive function in old age, preventing or treating certain neurological disorders, and improving overall quality of life.

Cognitive behavioral training (CBTraining), sometimes referred to as structured cognitive behavioral training, (SCBT) is an organized process that uses systematic, highly-structured tasks designed to improve cognitive functions. Functions such as working memory, decision making, and attention are thought to inform whether a person defaults to an impulsive behavior or a premeditated behavior. The aim of CBTraining is to affect a person's decision-making process and cause them to choose the premeditated behavior over the impulsive behavior in their everyday life. Through scheduled trainings that may be up to a few hours long and may be weekly or daily over a specific set of time, the goal of CBTraining is to show that focusing on repetitive, increasingly difficult cognitive tasks can transfer those skills to other cognitive processes in your brain, leading to behavioral change. There has been a recent resurgence of interest in this field with the invention of new technologies and a greater understanding of cognition in general.

Torkel Klingberg is a professor of cognitive neuroscience at the Karolinska Institutet in Stockholm, Sweden. He is the author of two books in Swedish, translated into English by Neil Betteridge, namely The Overflowing Brain: Information Overload and the Limits of Working Memory and The Learning Brain: Memory and Brain Development in Children. His research testing the hypothesis that playing memory games such as N-back also improves broader skills is controversial. He was one of the founders of Cogmed, but has currently no financial relationships with the company. He is executive director of Cognition Matters, a project that provides free digital cognitive training tools for children worldwide.

NeuroNation and its associated medical app NeuroNation MED are cognitive training software applications developed by the German healthcare technology company Synaptikon GmbH. NeuroNation was launched in 2011.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Michael Fitzgerald (2014-10-09). "Do brain games work?". The Boston Globe.
  2. 1 2 Kenward, Michael (5 December 2007). "Torkel Klingberg: More than just a computer game". ScienceBusiness.
  3. 1 2 Sinha, Gunjan (2005-07-11). "Training the Brain". Scientific American.
  4. ↑ "Cogmed Claims and Evidence" (PDF). cogmed.com. Pearson Education. 2014-06-18. Retrieved 26 May 2015.: 5 
  5. ↑ "Press release: PsychCorp Announces Acquisition of Cogmed". Pearson. July 14, 2010.
  6. 1 2 Gareth Cook (2013-04-05). "Brain Games are Bogus". The New Yorker.
  7. ↑ "Annual Report 2010" (PDF). Karolinska Development. p. 59.
  8. ↑ admin. "Torkel Klingberg". Klingberg lab. Retrieved 2022-04-05.
  9. ↑ Melby-Lervag M, Hulme C; Hulme (2012). "Is Working Memory Training Effective? A Meta-Analytic Review" (PDF). Developmental Psychology. 49 (2): 270–291. doi:10.1037/a0028228. PMID   22612437.
  10. ↑ Shipstead, Z; Hicks, K; Engle, RW (2012). "Cogmed working memory training: Does the evidence support the claims?". Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition. 1 (3): 185–193. doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.06.003.
  11. ↑ Egeland, Jens; Aarlien, Anne Kristine; Saunes, Brit-Kari (2013). "Few effects of far transfer of working memory training in ADHD: a randomized controlled trial". PLOS ONE. 8 (10): e75660. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...875660E. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0075660 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   3790857 . PMID   24124503.
  12. ↑ Bigorra, Aitana; Garolera, Maite; Guijarro, Silvina; Hervás, Amaia (2016). "Long-term far-transfer effects of working memory training in children with ADHD: a randomized controlled trial". European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 25 (8): 853–867. doi:10.1007/s00787-015-0804-3. ISSN   1435-165X. PMID   26669692. S2CID   22989315.
  13. ↑ Conklin, Heather M.; Ashford, Jason M.; Clark, Kellie N.; Martin-Elbahesh, Karen; Hardy, Kristina K.; Merchant, Thomas E.; Ogg, Robert J.; Jeha, Sima; Huang, Lu; Zhang, Hui (2016-06-24). "Long-Term Efficacy of Computerized Cognitive Training Among Survivors of Childhood Cancer: A Single-Blind Randomized Controlled Trial". Journal of Pediatric Psychology. 42 (2): 220–231. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsw057. ISSN   0146-8693. PMC   5896595 . PMID   27342301.
  14. ↑ Conklin, Heather M.; Ogg, Robert J.; Ashford, Jason M.; Scoggins, Matthew A.; Zou, Ping; Clark, Kellie N.; Martin-Elbahesh, Karen; Hardy, Kristina K.; Merchant, Thomas E.; Jeha, Sima; Huang, Lu (2015-11-20). "Computerized Cognitive Training for Amelioration of Cognitive Late Effects Among Childhood Cancer Survivors: A Randomized Controlled Trial". Journal of Clinical Oncology. 33 (33): 3894–3902. doi:10.1200/JCO.2015.61.6672. ISSN   0732-183X. PMC   4652013 . PMID   26460306.
  15. ↑ Carlson-Green, Bonnie; Puig, Jennifer; Bendel, Anne (2017-06-01). "Feasibility and efficacy of an extended trial of home-based working memory training for pediatric brain tumor survivors: a pilot study". Neuro-Oncology Practice. 4 (2): 111–120. doi:10.1093/nop/npw015. ISSN   2054-2577. PMC   6655366 . PMID   31385985.
  16. ↑ Åkerlund, Elisabeth; Esbjörnsson, Eva; Sunnerhagen, Katharina S.; Björkdahl, Ann (2013). "Can computerized working memory training improve impaired working memory, cognition and psychological health?". Brain Injury. 27 (13–14): 1649–1657. doi:10.3109/02699052.2013.830195. ISSN   0269-9052. PMID   24087909. S2CID   24676863.
  17. ↑ Peers, Polly V.; Astle, Duncan E.; Duncan, John; Murphy, Fionnuala C.; Hampshire, Adam; Das, Tilak; Manly, Tom (2020). "Dissociable effects of attention vs working memory training on cognitive performance and everyday functioning following fronto-parietal strokes". Neuropsychological Rehabilitation. 30 (6): 1092–1114. doi:10.1080/09602011.2018.1554534. ISSN   1464-0694. PMC   7266670 . PMID   30569816.
  18. 1 2 Berger, Eva M.; Fehr, Ernst; Hermes, Henning; Schunk, Daniel; Winkel, Kirsten (2020-06-09). "The Impact of Working Memory Training on Children's Cognitive and Noncognitive Skills". NHH Dept. of Economics Discussion. Rochester, NY. SSRN   3622985.
  19. ↑ Hurley, Dan (31 October 2012). "The Brain Trainers". New York Times.
  20. ↑ Katz, Benjamin; Shah, Priti; Meyer, David E. (2018-10-02). "How to play 20 questions with nature and lose: Reflections on 100 years of brain-training research". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (40): 9897–9904. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1617102114 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   6176639 . PMID   30275315.
  21. ↑ Samuel J. Westwood, Valeria Parlatini, Katya Rubia, Samuele Cortese, Edmund J. S. Sonuga-Barke (2023-03-29). "Computerized cognitive training in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials with blinded and objective outcomes". Nature.{{cite magazine}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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