Software

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Software written in the JavaScript language JavaScript code.png
Software written in the JavaScript language

Software consists of computer programs that instruct the execution of a computer. [1] Software also includes design documents and specifications.

Contents

The history of software is closely tied to the development of digital computers in the mid-20th century. Early programs were written in the machine language specific to the hardware. The introduction of high-level programming languages in 1958 allowed for more human-readable instructions, making software development easier and more portable across different computer architectures. Software in a programming language is run through a compiler or interpreter to execute on the architecture's hardware. Over time, software has become complex, owing to developments in networking, operating systems, and databases.

Software can generally be categorized into two main types:

  1. operating systems, which manage hardware resources and provide services for applications
  2. application software, which performs specific tasks for users

The rise of cloud computing has introduced the new software delivery model Software as a Service (SaaS). In SaaS, applications are hosted by a provider and accessed over the Internet.

The process of developing software involves several stages. The stages include software design, programming, testing, release, and maintenance. Software quality assurance and security are critical aspects of software development, as bugs and security vulnerabilities can lead to system failures and security breaches. Additionally, legal issues such as software licenses and intellectual property rights play a significant role in the distribution of software products.

History

The integrated circuit is an essential invention to produce modern software systems. 07R01.jpg
The integrated circuit is an essential invention to produce modern software systems.

The first use of the word software is credited to mathematician John Wilder Tukey in 1958. [3] The first programmable computers, which appeared at the end of the 1940s, [4] were programmed in machine language. Machine language is difficult to debug and not portable across different computers. [5] Initially, hardware resources were more expensive than human resources. [6] As programs became complex, programmer productivity became the bottleneck. The introduction of high-level programming languages in 1958 hid the details of the hardware and expressed the underlying algorithms into the code . [7] [8] Early languages include Fortran, Lisp, and COBOL. [8]

Types

A diagram showing how the user interacts with application software on a typical desktop computer. The application software layer interfaces with the operating system, which in turn communicates with the hardware. The arrows indicate information flow. Operating system placement (software).svg
A diagram showing how the user interacts with application software on a typical desktop computer. The application software layer interfaces with the operating system, which in turn communicates with the hardware. The arrows indicate information flow.

There are two main types of software:

Comparison of on-premise hardware and software, infrastructure as a service (IaaS), platform as a service (PaaS), and software as a service (SaaS) Comparison of on-premise, IaaS, PaaS, and SaaS.png
Comparison of on-premise hardware and software, infrastructure as a service (IaaS), platform as a service (PaaS), and software as a service (SaaS)

Software can also be categorized by how it is deployed. Traditional applications are purchased with a perpetual license for a specific version of the software, downloaded, and run on hardware belonging to the purchaser. [17] The rise of the Internet and cloud computing enabled a new model, software as a service (SaaS), [18] in which the provider hosts the software (usually built on top of rented infrastructure or platforms) [19] and provides the use of the software to customers, often in exchange for a subscription fee. [17] By 2023, SaaS products—which are usually delivered via a web application—had become the primary method that companies deliver applications. [20]

Software development and maintenance

Diagram for a traditional software development life cycle from 1988. The numbers represent the typical cost of each phase. Traditional software development life cycle diagram.png
Diagram for a traditional software development life cycle from 1988. The numbers represent the typical cost of each phase.

Software companies aim to deliver a high-quality product on time and under budget. A challenge is that software development effort estimation is often inaccurate. [21] Software development begins by conceiving the project, evaluating its feasibility, analyzing the business requirements, and making a software design. [22] [23] Most software projects speed up their development by reusing or incorporating existing software, either in the form of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) or open-source software. [24] [25] Software quality assurance is typically a combination of manual code review by other engineers [26] and automated software testing. Due to time constraints, testing cannot cover all aspects of the software's intended functionality, so developers often focus on the most critical functionality. [27] Formal methods are used in some safety-critical systems to prove the correctness of code, [28] while user acceptance testing helps to ensure that the product meets customer expectations. [29] There are a variety of software development methodologies, which vary from completing all steps in order to concurrent and iterative models. [30] Software development is driven by requirements taken from prospective users, as opposed to maintenance, which is driven by events such as a change request. [31]

Frequently, software is released in an incomplete state when the development team runs out of time or funding. [32] Despite testing and quality assurance, virtually all software contains bugs where the system does not work as intended. Post-release software maintenance is necessary to remediate these bugs when they are found and keep the software working as the environment changes over time. [33] New features are often added after the release. Over time, the level of maintenance becomes increasingly restricted before being cut off entirely when the product is withdrawn from the market. [34] As software ages, it becomes known as legacy software and can remain in use for decades, even if there is no one left who knows how to fix it. [35] Over the lifetime of the product, software maintenance is estimated to comprise 75 percent or more of the total development cost. [36] [37]

Completing a software project involves various forms of expertise, not just in software programmers but also testing, documentation writing, project management, graphic design, user experience, user support, marketing, and fundraising. [38] [39] [23]

Quality and security

Software quality is defined as meeting the stated requirements as well as customer expectations. [40] Quality is an overarching term that can refer to a code's correct and efficient behavior, its reusability and portability, or the ease of modification. [41] It is usually more cost-effective to build quality into the product from the beginning rather than try to add it later in the development process. [42] Higher quality code will reduce lifetime cost to both suppliers and customers as it is more reliable and easier to maintain. [43] [44] Software failures in safety-critical systems can be very serious including death. [43] By some estimates, the cost of poor quality software can be as high as 20 to 40 percent of sales. [45] Despite developers' goal of delivering a product that works entirely as intended, virtually all software contains bugs. [46]

The rise of the Internet also greatly increased the need for computer security as it enabled malicious actors to conduct cyberattacks remotely. [47] [48] If a bug creates a security risk, it is called a vulnerability. [49] [50] Software patches are often released to fix identified vulnerabilities, but those that remain unknown (zero days) as well as those that have not been patched are still liable for exploitation. [51] Vulnerabilities vary in their ability to be exploited by malicious actors, [49] and the actual risk is dependent on the nature of the vulnerability as well as the value of the surrounding system. [52] Although some vulnerabilities can only be used for denial of service attacks that compromise a system's availability, others allow the attacker to inject and run their own code (called malware), without the user being aware of it. [49] To thwart cyberattacks, all software in the system must be designed to withstand and recover from external attack. [48] Despite efforts to ensure security, a significant fraction of computers are infected with malware. [53]

Encoding and execution

Programming languages

The source code for a computer program in C. The gray lines are comments that explain the program to humans. When compiled and run, it will give the output "Hello, world!". C Hello World Program.png
The source code for a computer program in C. The gray lines are comments that explain the program to humans. When compiled and run, it will give the output "Hello, world!".

Programming languages are the format in which software is written. Since the 1950s, thousands of different programming languages have been invented; some have been in use for decades, while others have fallen into disuse. [54] Some definitions classify machine code—the exact instructions directly implemented by the hardware—and assembly language—a more human-readable alternative to machine code whose statements can be translated one-to-one into machine code—as programming languages. [55] Programs written in the high-level programming languages used to create software share a few main characteristics: knowledge of machine code is not necessary to write them, they can be ported to other computer systems, and they are more concise and human-readable than machine code. [56] They must be both human-readable and capable of being translated into unambiguous instructions for computer hardware. [57]

Compilation, interpretation, and execution

The invention of high-level programming languages was simultaneous with the compilers needed to translate them automatically into machine code. [58] Most programs do not contain all the resources needed to run them and rely on external libraries. Part of the compiler's function is to link these files in such a way that the program can be executed by the hardware. Once compiled, the program can be saved as an object file and the loader (part of the operating system) can take this saved file and execute it as a process on the computer hardware. [59] Some programming languages use an interpreter instead of a compiler. An interpreter converts the program into machine code at run time, which makes them 10 to 100 times slower than compiled programming languages. [60] [61]

Liability

Software is often released with the knowledge that it is incomplete or contains bugs. Purchasers knowingly buy it in this state, which has led to a legal regime where liability for software products is significantly curtailed compared to other products. [62]

Licenses

Blender, a free software program Cube in Blender Editor.jpg
Blender, a free software program

Source code is protected by copyright law that vests the owner with the exclusive right to copy the code. The underlying ideas or algorithms are not protected by copyright law, but are often treated as a trade secret and concealed by such methods as non-disclosure agreements. [63] Software copyright has been recognized since the mid-1970s and is vested in the company that makes the software, not the employees or contractors who wrote it. [64] The use of most software is governed by an agreement (software license) between the copyright holder and the user. Proprietary software is usually sold under a restrictive license that limits copying and reuse (often enforced with tools such as digital rights management (DRM)). [65] Open-source licenses, in contrast, allow free use and redistribution of software with few conditions. [64] Most open-source licenses used for software require that modifications be released under the same license, which can create complications when open-source software is reused in proprietary projects. [66]

Patents

Patents give an inventor an exclusive, time-limited license for a novel product or process. [67] Ideas about what software could accomplish are not protected by law and concrete implementations are instead covered by copyright law. In some countries, a requirement for the claimed invention to have an effect on the physical world may also be part of the requirements for a software patent to be held valid. [68] Software patents have been historically controversial. Before the 1998 case State Street Bank & Trust Co. v. Signature Financial Group, Inc. , software patents were generally not recognized in the United States. In that case, the Supreme Court decided that business processes could be patented. [69] Patent applications are complex and costly, and lawsuits involving patents can drive up the cost of products. [70] Unlike copyrights, patents generally only apply in the jurisdiction where they were issued. [71]

Impact

Computer-generated simulations are one of the advances enabled by software. A computer graphic of the Queen Elizabeth carrier and carrier group.jpg
Computer-generated simulations are one of the advances enabled by software.

Engineer Capers Jones writes that "computers and software are making profound changes to every aspect of human life: education, work, warfare, entertainment, medicine, law, and everything else". [73] It has become ubiquitous in everyday life in developed countries. [74] In many cases, software augments the functionality of existing technologies such as household appliances and elevators. [75] Software also spawned entirely new technologies such as the Internet, video games, mobile phones, and GPS. [75] [76] New methods of communication, including email, forums, blogs, microblogging, wikis, and social media, were enabled by the Internet. [77] Massive amounts of knowledge exceeding any paper-based library are now available with a quick web search. [76] Most creative professionals have switched to software-based tools such as computer-aided design, 3D modeling, digital image editing, and computer animation. [72] Almost every complex device is controlled by software. [76]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Device driver</span> Software interface to attached devices

In the context of an operating system, a device driver is a computer program that operates or controls a particular type of device that is attached to a computer or automaton. A driver provides a software interface to hardware devices, enabling operating systems and other computer programs to access hardware functions without needing to know precise details about the hardware being used.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Free software</span> Software licensed to be freely used, modified and distributed

Free software, libre software, libreware sometimes known as freedom-respecting software is computer software distributed under terms that allow users to run the software for any purpose as well as to study, change, and distribute it and any adapted versions. Free software is a matter of liberty, not price; all users are legally free to do what they want with their copies of a free software regardless of how much is paid to obtain the program. Computer programs are deemed "free" if they give end-users ultimate control over the software and, subsequently, over their devices.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Legacy system</span> Old computing technology or system that remains in use

In computing, a legacy system is an old method, technology, computer system, or application program, "of, relating to, or being a previous or outdated computer system", yet still in use. Often referencing a system as "legacy" means that it paved the way for the standards that would follow it. This can also imply that the system is out of date or in need of replacement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Operating system</span> Software that manages computer hardware resources

An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources, and provides common services for computer programs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Programming language</span> Language for communicating instructions to a machine

A programming language is a system of notation for writing computer programs.

In computer programming and software design, code refactoring is the process of restructuring existing source code—changing the factoring—without changing its external behavior. Refactoring is intended to improve the design, structure, and/or implementation of the software, while preserving its functionality. Potential advantages of refactoring may include improved code readability and reduced complexity; these can improve the source code's maintainability and create a simpler, cleaner, or more expressive internal architecture or object model to improve extensibility. Another potential goal for refactoring is improved performance; software engineers face an ongoing challenge to write programs that perform faster or use less memory.

In computing, source code, or simply code or source, is a plain text computer program written in a programming language. A programmer writes the human readable source code to control the behavior of a computer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Software testing</span> Checking software against a standard

Software testing is the act of checking whether software satisfies expectations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Virtual machine</span> Software that emulates an entire computer

In computing, a virtual machine (VM) is the virtualization or emulation of a computer system. Virtual machines are based on computer architectures and provide the functionality of a physical computer. Their implementations may involve specialized hardware, software, or a combination of the two. Virtual machines differ and are organized by their function, shown here:

A software bug is a design defect (bug) in computer software. A computer program with many or serious bugs may be described as buggy.

Software development is the process of designing and implementing a software solution to satisfy a user. The process is more encompassing than programming, writing code, in that it includes conceiving the goal, evaluating feasibility, analyzing requirements, design, testing and release. The process is part of software engineering which also includes organizational management, project management, configuration management and other aspects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Software protection dongle</span> Electronic software copy protection device

A software protection dongle is an electronic copy protection and content protection device. When connected to a computer or other electronics, they unlock software functionality or decode content. The hardware key is programmed with a product key or other cryptographic protection mechanism and functions via an electrical connector to an external bus of the computer or appliance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Software license</span> Governs the use and/or redistribution of software

A software license is a legal instrument governing the use or redistribution of software.

Vulnerabilities are flaws in a computer system that weaken the overall security of the system.

The software industry includes businesses for development, maintenance and publication of software that are using different business models, mainly either "license/maintenance based" (on-premises) or "Cloud based". The industry also includes software services, such as training, documentation, consulting and data recovery. The software and computer services industry spends more than 11% of its net sales for Research & Development which is in comparison with other industries the second highest share after pharmaceuticals & biotechnology.

Software as a service is a cloud computing service model where the provider offers use of application software to a client and manages all needed physical and software resources. Unlike other software delivery models, it separates "the possession and ownership of software from its use". SaaS use began around 2000, and by 2023 was the main form of software application deployment.

A software system is a system of intercommunicating components based on software forming part of a computer system. It "consists of a number of separate programs, configuration files, which are used to set up these programs, system documentation, which describes the structure of the system, and user documentation, which explains how to use the system".

Reverse engineering is a process or method through which one attempts to understand through deductive reasoning how a previously made device, process, system, or piece of software accomplishes a task with very little insight into exactly how it does so. Depending on the system under consideration and the technologies employed, the knowledge gained during reverse engineering can help with repurposing obsolete objects, doing security analysis, or learning how something works.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cloud computing</span> Form of shared internet-based computing

Cloud computing is the on-demand availability of computer system resources, especially data storage and computing power, without direct active management by the user. Large clouds often have functions distributed over multiple locations, each of which is a data center. Cloud computing relies on sharing of resources to achieve coherence and typically uses a pay-as-you-go model, which can help in reducing capital expenses but may also lead to unexpected operating expenses for users.

An application programming interface (API) is a connection between computers or between computer programs. It is a type of software interface, offering a service to other pieces of software. A document or standard that describes how to build such a connection or interface is called an API specification. A computer system that meets this standard is said to implement or expose an API. The term API may refer either to the specification or to the implementation.

References

  1. ↑ Stair, Ralph M. (2003). Principles of Information Systems, Sixth Edition. Thomson. p. 16. ISBN   0-619-06489-7. Software consists of computer programs that govern the operation of the computer.
  2. ↑ Jones 2014, pp. 19, 22.
  3. ↑ Tracy 2021, p. 2.
  4. ↑ Gabbrielli & Martini 2023, p. 519.
  5. ↑ Gabbrielli & Martini 2023, pp. 520–521.
  6. ↑ Gabbrielli & Martini 2023, p. 522.
  7. ↑ Gabbrielli & Martini 2023, p. 521.
  8. 1 2 Tracy 2021, p. 1.
  9. ↑ Anderson & Dahlin 2014, p. 6.
  10. 1 2 3 Anderson & Dahlin 2014, p. 7.
  11. ↑ Tanenbaum & Bos 2023, p. 5.
  12. ↑ Anderson & Dahlin 2014, pp. 7, 9, 13.
  13. ↑ Anderson & Dahlin 2014, pp. 6–7.
  14. ↑ Jones 2014, p. 121.
  15. ↑ Tracy 2021, p. 66.
  16. ↑ Tracy 2021, p. 72.
  17. 1 2 O'Regan 2022, p. 386.
  18. ↑ Campbell-Kelly & Garcia-Swartz 2015, pp. 156–157.
  19. ↑ Rosati & Lynn 2020, p. 23.
  20. ↑ Watt 2023, p. 4.
  21. ↑ O'Regan 2022, p. 7.
  22. ↑ O'Regan 2022, p. 5.
  23. 1 2 Dooley 2017, p. 1.
  24. ↑ O'Regan 2022, pp. 18, 110–111.
  25. ↑ Tracy 2021, pp. 43, 76.
  26. ↑ O'Regan 2022, pp. 117–118.
  27. ↑ O'Regan 2022, p. 54.
  28. ↑ O'Regan 2022, p. 267.
  29. ↑ O'Regan 2022, p. 20.
  30. ↑ O'Regan 2022, p. 9.
  31. ↑ Tripathy & Naik 2014, p. 26.
  32. ↑ Reifer 2012, p. 22.
  33. ↑ Tripathy & Naik 2014, pp. 4, 27.
  34. ↑ Tripathy & Naik 2014, p. 89.
  35. ↑ Tracy 2021, p. 3.
  36. ↑ Varga 2018, p. 6.
  37. ↑ Ulziit et al. 2015, p. 764.
  38. ↑ Tucker, Morelli & de Silva 2011, p. 7.
  39. ↑ Stull 2018, pp. 24–25.
  40. ↑ Galin 2018, p. 3.
  41. ↑ Galin 2018, p. 26.
  42. ↑ O'Regan 2022, pp. 68, 117.
  43. 1 2 O'Regan 2022, pp. 3, 268.
  44. ↑ Varga 2018, p. 12.
  45. ↑ O'Regan 2022, p. 119.
  46. ↑ Ablon & Bogart 2017, p. 1.
  47. ↑ Campbell-Kelly & Garcia-Swartz 2015, p. 164.
  48. 1 2 O'Regan 2022, p. 266.
  49. 1 2 3 Ablon & Bogart 2017, p. 2.
  50. ↑ Daswani & Elbayadi 2021, p. 25.
  51. ↑ Daswani & Elbayadi 2021, pp. 26–27.
  52. ↑ Haber & Hibbert 2018, pp. 5–6.
  53. ↑ Kitchin & Dodge 2011, p. 37.
  54. ↑ Tracy 2021, p. 117.
  55. ↑ Tracy 2021, pp. 118–120.
  56. ↑ Tracy 2021, pp. 118–119.
  57. ↑ Kitchin & Dodge 2011, p. 26.
  58. ↑ Tracy 2021, p. 121.
  59. ↑ Tracy 2021, pp. 122–123.
  60. ↑ O'Regan 2022, p. 375.
  61. ↑ Sebesta 2012, p. 28.
  62. ↑ Kitchin & Dodge 2011, pp. 36–37.
  63. ↑ O'Regan 2022, pp. 394–396.
  64. 1 2 O'Regan 2022, p. 403.
  65. ↑ O'Regan 2022, pp. 394, 404.
  66. ↑ Langer 2016, pp. 44–45.
  67. ↑ O'Regan 2022, p. 395.
  68. ↑ Gerardo Con Díaz, "The Text in the Machine: American Copyright Law and the Many Natures of Software, 1974–1978", Technology and Culture 57 (October 2016), 753–79.
  69. ↑ Jones 2014, p. 19.
  70. ↑ O'Regan 2022, p. 398.
  71. ↑ O'Regan 2022, p. 399.
  72. 1 2 Manovich 2013, p. 333.
  73. ↑ Jones 2014, p. 32.
  74. ↑ Kitchin & Dodge 2011, p. iv.
  75. 1 2 Kitchin & Dodge 2011, p. 5.
  76. 1 2 3 Jones 2014, p. xxviii.
  77. ↑ Manovich 2013, p. 329.

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