Coronary ischemia

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Coronary ischemia
Other namesmyocardial ischemia, cardiac ischemia
Coronary arteries.svg
Coronary arteries of the human heart
Specialty Cardiology

Coronary ischemia, myocardial ischemia, [1] or cardiac ischemia, [2] is a medical term for abnormally reduced blood flow in the coronary circulation through the coronary arteries. [3] Coronary ischemia is linked to heart disease, and heart attacks. [4] Coronary arteries deliver oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle. [5] Reduced blood flow to the heart associated with coronary ischemia can result in inadequate oxygen supply to the heart muscle. [6] When oxygen supply to the heart is unable to keep up with oxygen demand from the muscle, the result is the characteristic symptoms of coronary ischemia, the most common of which is chest pain. [6] Chest pain due to coronary ischemia commonly radiates to the arm or neck. [7] Certain individuals such as women, diabetics, and the elderly may present with more varied symptoms. [8] If blood flow through the coronary arteries is stopped completely, cardiac muscle cells may die, known as a myocardial infarction, or heart attack. [9]

Contents

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is the most common cause of coronary ischemia. [7] Coronary ischemia and coronary artery disease are contributors to the development of heart failure over time. [10] Diagnosis of coronary ischemia is achieved by an attaining a medical history and physical examination in addition to other tests such as electrocardiography (ECG), stress testing, and coronary angiography. [11] Treatment is aimed toward preventing future adverse events and relieving symptoms. [12] Beneficial lifestyle modifications include smoking cessation, a heart healthy diet, and regular exercise. [13] Medications such as nitrates and beta-blockers may be useful for reducing the symptoms of coronary ischemia. [6] In refractory cases, invasive procedures such as percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) may be performed to relieve coronary ischemia. [14]

Recently, evidence has been found that ischemia can also occur without coronary obstruction (a conditional known as INOCA - ischemia with no obstructed arteries). [1] Other studies have found that Long COVID or post acute COVID syndrome can also be associated with myocardial ischemia. [15] Treatment for both conditions is similar to treatment for ischemia caused by CAD. [1] [15]

INOCA

Cardiac catheterization.jpg

INOCA is cardiac ischemia with no coronary artery obstruction. [16] Approximately 3-4 million people have been diagnosed with this condition; with female diagnosis prevalent. Risk factors include female sex, advanced age, smoking, hyperlipidemia, inflammatory disease, diabetes and glucose intolerance. [17] Diagnosis of INOCA can begin with non-invasive testing including PET with myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI) or stress cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging. However, final diagnosis must be made with cardiac angiography to confirm the absence of occlusion. [18]

Ischemia Involving SARS-CoV-2

Data involving cardiac ischemia resulting from post acute COVID syndrome (or Long COVID) is evolving. Various studies have been combined to show a significant percentage of patients presenting with myocardial ischemia post COVID infection (infection requiring hospitalization) with no documented prior history of coronary disease. Vaccination (with 2 doses) has been shown to decrease the risk of Long COVID in recent studies. [15]

Signs and symptoms

A key symptom of coronary ischemia is chest pain or pressure, known as angina pectoris. [4] Angina may present typically with classic symptoms or atypically with symptoms less often associated with heart disease. [19] Atypical presentations are more common in women, diabetics, and elderly individuals. [8] Angina may be stable or unstable. Unstable angina is most often associated with emergent, acute coronary syndromes. [20]

Angina is typically located below the sternum. [4] Individuals experiencing angina characterize the pain in different ways, but the pain is usually described as crushing, squeezing, or burning. [7] Symptoms may worsen over the course of several minutes. [4] Typical angina is aggravated by physical activity or emotional stress and is relieved by rest or nitroglycerin. [4] The pain may radiate to other parts of the body, most commonly the left arm or neck. [7] In some individuals, the pain may be less severe and present as pressure or numbness. [7] Less commonly, the pain may radiate to both arms, the jaw, or to the back. [20]

Atypical

Women, diabetic individuals, and elderly individuals are more likely to present with atypical symptoms other than chest pain. [8] Women may present with back pain, shortness of breath, heartburn, nausea, and vomiting. [19] Heart disease in women goes undetected prior to a major cardiac event in up to 60% of cases. [19] Among women who experience a heart attack, many do not have any prior chest pain. [19] Due to alterations in sensory pathways, diabetic and elderly individuals also may present without any chest pain and may have atypical symptoms similar to those seen in women. [8] This type of ischemia is also known as silent ischemia. [21] [22] [23] [24]

Causes

Coronary artery disease (CAD) occurs when fatty substances, known as plaques, adhere to the walls of coronary arteries supplying the heart, narrowing them and constricting blood flow, a process known as atherosclerosis, the most common cause of coronary ischemia. [25] Angina may start to occur when the vessel is 70% occluded. [9] Lack of oxygen may also result in a myocardial infarction (heart attack). [26] CAD can be contracted over time. Risk factors include a family history of CAD, smoking, high blood pressure, diabetes, obesity, inactive lifestyle, mental stress and high cholesterol. [26] [27] Angina can also occur due to spasm of the coronary arteries, even in individuals without atherosclerosis. [28] In coronary artery spasm, the vessel constricts to limit blood flow through the artery, causing a decrease in oxygen supply to the heart, although the mechanisms for this phenomenon are not fully understood. [28]

Natural course

Coronary ischemia can have serious consequences if it is not treated. Plaques in the walls of the coronary arteries can rupture, resulting in occlusion of the artery and deprivation of blood flow and oxygen to the heart muscle, resulting in cardiac cell death. [9] This is known as myocardial infarction. [9] A heart attack can cause arrhythmias, as well as permanent damage to the heart muscle. [25] Coronary ischemia resulting from coronary artery disease also increases the risk of developing heart failure. [10] Most cases of heart failure result from underlying coronary artery disease. [10] A myocardial infarction carries a greater than five-fold increase in relative risk for developing heart failure. [10]

Diagnosis

If coronary ischemia is suspected, a series of tests will be undertaken for confirmation. The most common tests used are an electrocardiogram, an exercise stress test, and a coronary angiography. [29] A variety of laboratory tests may be ordered. An important laboratory test to determine if myocardial damage has occurred is a cardiac troponin value. [20] A medical history will be taken, including queries about past incidence of chest pain or shortness of breath. The duration and frequency of symptoms will be noted as will any measures taken to relieve the symptoms. [29]

Electrocardiogram

A resting electrocardiogram (EKG) is an early step in the diagnostic process. [11] An electrocardiogram (EKG) involves the use of electrodes that are placed on the arms, chest, and legs. [29] These sensors detect any abnormal rhythms that the heart may be producing. This test is painless and it helps detect insufficient blood flow to the heart. [29] An EKG can also detect damage that has been done in the past to the heart. [30] This test can also detect any thickening in the walls of the left ventricles as well as any defects in the electrical impulses of the heart. [29] It is quick and provides the Physician with the P/PR, Heart Rate, QRS, QT/QTcF, P/QRS/T, and axis results. [31] [32]

Exercise stress electrocardiogram

A cardiac stress test, puts stress on the heart through exercise. A series of exercises to measure the tolerance for stress on the heart will be carried out. This test uses an EKG to detect the electrical impulses of the heart during physical exertion. [29]

A treadmill or exercise bike will be used. The incline or resistance of the bike are steadily increased until the target heart rate for the person's age and weight is reached. [29] However, an exercise stress test is not always accurate in determining the presence of a blockage in the arteries. [11] Women and those who are young may show abnormalities on their test even though no signs of coronary ischemia or CAD are present. [29] Harmless arrhythmias present at baseline may distort the results. [11] Diagnosis of coronary artery disease is missed in 37% of men and 18% of women with a negative test. [33] However, those patients who are able to complete the test are at lower risk of future cardiac events. [11]

Stress echocardiography

Stress echocardiography is very commonly used in assessing for ischemia resulting from coronary artery disease. It can be performed exercising, preferably with a bicycle that allows the patient to exercise while lying flat, which allows for imaging throughout the entire testing period. [33] While the patient is exercising, images of the heart in motion are generated. [34] Ischemia can be detected by visualizing abnormalities in the movement of the heart and the thickness of the heart wall during exercise. [34]

Some people may be unable to exercise in order to achieve a sufficient heart rate for a useful test. In these cases, high-dose dobutamine may be used to chemically increase heart rate. [11] If dobutamine is insufficient for this purpose, atropine be added to reach goal heart rate. [11] Dipyridamole is an alternative to dobutamine but it is less effective in detecting abnormalities. [34] While exercise echocardiograms are more effective in detecting coronary artery disease, all forms of stress echocardiograms are more effective than exercise EKG in detecting coronary ischemia secondary to coronary artery disease. [11] If stress echocardiography is normal, risk of future adverse cardiac events is low enough that invasive coronary angiography is not needed. [34]

Coronary angiography

A coronary angiography is performed after a stress test or EKG shows abnormal results. [35] This test is very important in finding where the blockages are in the arteries. [29] This test helps determine if an angioplasty or bypass surgery is needed. [36] Coronary angiography should only be performed if a patient is a willing to undergo a coronary revascularization procedure. [37]

During this test the doctor makes a small incision in the patient's groin or arm and inserts a catheter. [35] The catheter has a very small video camera on the end of it so that the doctor can find the arteries. [29] Once they have found the arteries, they inject a dye in them so that they can detect any blockages in the arteries. [35] The dye is able to be seen on a special x-ray machine. [29]

Treatment

Coronary ischemia can be treated but not cured. [38] By changing lifestyle, further blockages can be prevented. [39] A change in lifestyle, mixed with prescribed medication, can improve health. [13] In some cases, coronary revascularization procedures may be used. [14]

Smoking cessation

Tobacco smoking is a clear risk factor for development of coronary artery disease. [13] Exposure to second hand smoke also has clear cardiovascular risks. [13] Tobacco smokers have higher levels of cholesterol and triglycerides which are risk factors for development of coronary artery disease. [40] Smoking has been shown in numerous studies to accelerate atherosclerosis by several years. [39] A study showed that those who quit smoking reduced their risk of being hospitalized over the next two years. [38] The benefits of smoking cessation are greater the longer an individual has been abstinent from tobacco. [39] After two years of smoking cessation, risk of heart attack can be cut in half. [40] Smoking cessation has a significant mortality benefit regardless of age. [13] Nicotine replacement therapy, bupropion, and varenicline are safe therapies that improve the likelihood of smoking cessation. [40]

Healthy diet

A healthy diet is a very important factor in preventing coronary ischemia or coronary artery disease. [38] A heart-healthy diet is low in saturated fat and cholesterol and high in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. [39] Recent studies have shown that there is an inverse correlation between increased fruit and vegetable intake and the risk of CAD. [13] A mortality benefit has been seen in individuals with higher intake of whole grains. [41] These food choices can reduce the risk of a heart attack or any other congestive heart failure event. [38] These foods may also slow further growth of plaques in the coronary arteries and reduce further ischemia. [39]

Physical activity

By increasing physical activity, it is possible to manage body weight, reduce blood pressure, and relieve stress. [38] Moderate intensity exercise of 30–60 minutes per day for 5–7 days per week is recommended. [13] Moderate intensity exercise is defined as exercise that increases heart rate to 55-74% of maximum heart rate. [42] High intensity exercise increasing the heart rate to 70-100% of maximum heart rate for shorter intervals is at least as effective, and this type of exercise may increase oxygen uptake by the heart compared to moderate intensity exercise. [43] Per the Center for Disease Control, an estimate of maximum heart rate for an individual can be calculated by subtracting age from 220. [44] Exercising this way can reduce the risk of getting heart disease or coronary ischemia. [38]

Medication-based therapy

Medication-based therapy for coronary ischemia should be focused on reducing the likelihood of future adverse cardiac events and treating symptoms of coronary ischemia such as angina. [45] Key medications with strong evidence of benefit include aspirin, or alternatively clopidogrel. [45] These medications help to prevent clots in the coronary artery and the occlusion which can lead to a heart attack. [46] Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors are indicated in individuals with diabetes, kidney disease, and hypertension. [45] Statin medications help to reduce cholesterol and plaque formation and may even contribute to plaque regression. [47]

Other medications may be used to reduce the symptoms of coronary ischemia, particularly angina. Long and short acting nitrates are one option for reducing anginal pain. [6] Nitrates reduce the symptoms of angina by dilating blood vessels around the heart, which increases oxygen-rich blood supply to the muscle cells of the heart. [48] Veins are also dilated, which reduces return of blood to the heart, easing strain on the heart muscle. [48] Short-acting nitrates can be taken upon the onset of symptoms and should provide relief within minutes. [6] Nitroglycerin is the most common short-acting nitrate and it is applied under the tongue. [6] Long acting nitrates are taken 2-3 times per day and can be used to prevent angina. [6] Beta-blockers may also be used to reduce the incidence of chronic angina. [6] Beta-blockers prevent episodes of angina by reducing heart rate and reducing the strength of contraction of the heart, which lowers oxygen demand in the heart. [6]

Coronary revascularization

In individuals with symptoms that are not well controlled with medical and lifestyle therapy there are invasive options available including percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and coronary artery bypass graft (CABG). [37] PCI involves placing a stent to relieve coronary artery blockages. [12] CABG involves grafting new blood vessels to provide a new route for blood flow around the blocked vessel. [12] Choice of treatment is based on the number of coronary vessels with blockages, which vessels are effected, and the medical history of the patient. [37] There is not sufficient evidence to suggest that PCI or CABG provides a mortality benefit in individuals with stable coronary ischemia. [14] More recently, research has been investigating the short- and long-term efficacy of Hybrid Coronary Revascularization (HCR), a combination of both PCI and CABG. Some research supports that HCR is a stronger option compared to PCI or CABG alone for multivessel coronary artery disease because HCR is better at lowering the risk of short-term adverse cardiac/vascular events. [49]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cardiology</span> Branch of medicine dealing with the heart

Cardiology is the study of the heart. Cardiology is a branch of medicine that deals with disorders of the heart and the cardiovascular system. The field includes medical diagnosis and treatment of congenital heart defects, coronary artery disease, heart failure, valvular heart disease, and electrophysiology. Physicians who specialize in this field of medicine are called cardiologists, a sub-specialty of internal medicine. Pediatric cardiologists are pediatricians who specialize in cardiology. Physicians who specialize in cardiac surgery are called cardiothoracic surgeons or cardiac surgeons, a specialty of general surgery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coronary artery disease</span> Reduction of blood flow to the heart

Coronary artery disease (CAD), also called coronary heart disease (CHD), or ischemic heart disease (IHD), is a type of heart disease involving the reduction of blood flow to the cardiac muscle due to build-up of atherosclerotic plaque in the arteries of the heart. It is the most common of the cardiovascular diseases. CAD can cause stable angina, unstable angina, myocardial ischemia, and myocardial infarction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Angina</span> Chest discomfort due to disorder of the heart muscles

Angina, also known as angina pectoris, is chest pain or pressure, usually caused by insufficient blood flow to the heart muscle (myocardium). It is most commonly a symptom of coronary artery disease.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coronary artery bypass surgery</span> Surgical procedure to restore normal blood flow to an obstructed coronary artery

Coronary artery bypass surgery, also known as coronary artery bypass graft, is a surgical procedure to treat coronary artery disease (CAD), the buildup of plaques in the arteries of the heart. It can relieve chest pain caused by CAD, slow the progression of CAD, and increase life expectancy. It aims to bypass narrowings in heart arteries by using arteries or veins harvested from other parts of the body, thus restoring adequate blood supply to the previously ischemic heart.

Microvascular angina (MVA), previously known as cardiac syndrome X, also known as coronary microvascular dysfunction(CMD) or microvascular coronary disease is a type of angina (chest pain) with signs associated with decreased blood flow to heart tissue but with normal coronary arteries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cardiac stress test</span> Measures the hearts ability to respond to external stress in a controlled clinical environment

A cardiac stress test is a cardiological examination that evaluates the cardiovascular system's response to external stress within a controlled clinical setting. This stress response can be induced through physical exercise or intravenous pharmacological stimulation of heart rate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Acute coronary syndrome</span> Dysfunction of the heart muscles due to insufficient blood flow

Acute coronary syndrome (ACS) is a syndrome due to decreased blood flow in the coronary arteries such that part of the heart muscle is unable to function properly or dies. The most common symptom is centrally located pressure-like chest pain, often radiating to the left shoulder or angle of the jaw, and associated with nausea and sweating. Many people with acute coronary syndromes present with symptoms other than chest pain, particularly women, older people, and people with diabetes mellitus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Variant angina</span> Cardiac chest pain at any time, not just periods of exertion

Variant angina, also known as Prinzmetal angina,vasospastic angina, angina inversa, coronary vessel spasm, or coronary artery vasospasm, is a syndrome typically consisting of angina. Variant angina differs from stable angina in that it commonly occurs in individuals who are at rest or even asleep, whereas stable angina is generally triggered by exertion or intense exercise. Variant angina is caused by vasospasm, a narrowing of the coronary arteries due to contraction of the heart's smooth muscle tissue in the vessel walls. In comparison, stable angina is caused by the permanent occlusion of these vessels by atherosclerosis, which is the buildup of fatty plaque and hardening of the arteries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Unstable angina</span> Chest pain due to heart muscles that is easily provoked

Unstable angina is a type of angina pectoris that is irregular or more easily provoked. It is classified as a type of acute coronary syndrome.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Percutaneous coronary intervention</span> Medical techniques used to manage coronary occlusion

Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) is a minimally invasive non-surgical procedure used to treat narrowing of the coronary arteries of the heart found in coronary artery disease. The procedure is used to place and deploy coronary stents, a permanent wire-meshed tube, to open narrowed coronary arteries. PCI is considered 'non-surgical' as it uses a small hole in a peripheral artery (leg/arm) to gain access to the arterial system, an equivalent surgical procedure would involve the opening of the chest wall to gain access to the heart area. The term 'coronary angioplasty with stent' is synonymous with PCI. The procedure visualises the blood vessels via fluoroscopic imaging and contrast dyes. PCI is performed by an interventional cardiologists in a catheterization laboratory setting.

Coronary vasospasm refers to when a coronary artery suddenly undergoes either complete or sub-total temporary occlusion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Myocardial perfusion imaging</span> Nuclear medicine imaging method

Myocardial perfusion imaging or scanning is a nuclear medicine procedure that illustrates the function of the heart muscle (myocardium).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coronary stent</span> Medical stent implanted into coronary arteries

A coronary stent is a tube-shaped device placed in the coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart, to keep the arteries open in patients suffering from coronary heart disease. The vast majority of stents used in modern interventional cardiology are drug-eluting stents (DES). They are used in a medical procedure called percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). Coronary stents are divided into two broad types: drug-eluting and bare metal stents. As of 2023, drug-eluting stents were used in more than 90% of all PCI procedures. Stents reduce angina and have been shown to improve survival and decrease adverse events after a patient has suffered a heart attack—medically termed an acute myocardial infarction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Myocardial infarction</span> Interruption of cardiac blood supply

A myocardial infarction (MI), commonly known as a heart attack, occurs when blood flow decreases or stops in one of the coronary arteries of the heart, causing infarction to the heart muscle. The most common symptom is retrosternal chest pain or discomfort that classically radiates to the left shoulder, arm, or jaw. The pain may occasionally feel like heartburn.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Myocardial bridge</span> Birth defect of a coronary artery through the heart muscle

A myocardial bridge (MB) is a common congenital heart anomaly in which one of the coronary arteries tunnels through the heart muscle (myocardium) itself.

A diagnosis of myocardial infarction is created by integrating the history of the presenting illness and physical examination with electrocardiogram findings and cardiac markers. A coronary angiogram allows visualization of narrowings or obstructions on the heart vessels, and therapeutic measures can follow immediately. At autopsy, a pathologist can diagnose a myocardial infarction based on anatomopathological findings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Management of acute coronary syndrome</span>

Management of acute coronary syndrome is targeted against the effects of reduced blood flow to the affected area of the heart muscle, usually because of a blood clot in one of the coronary arteries, the vessels that supply oxygenated blood to the myocardium. This is achieved with urgent hospitalization and medical therapy, including drugs that relieve chest pain and reduce the size of the infarct, and drugs that inhibit clot formation; for a subset of patients invasive measures are also employed. Basic principles of management are the same for all types of acute coronary syndrome. However, some important aspects of treatment depend on the presence or absence of elevation of the ST segment on the electrocardiogram, which classifies cases upon presentation to either ST segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) or non-ST elevation acute coronary syndrome (NST-ACS); the latter includes unstable angina and non-ST elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI). Treatment is generally more aggressive for STEMI patients, and reperfusion therapy is more often reserved for them. Long-term therapy is necessary for prevention of recurrent events and complications.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging perfusion</span>

Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging perfusion, also known as stress CMR perfusion, is a clinical magnetic resonance imaging test performed on patients with known or suspected coronary artery disease to determine if there are perfusion defects in the myocardium of the left ventricle that are caused by narrowing of one or more of the coronary arteries.

Kounis syndrome is defined as acute coronary syndrome caused by an allergic reaction or a strong immune reaction to a drug or other substance. It is a rare syndrome with authentic cases reported in 130 males and 45 females, as reviewed in 2017; however, the disorder is suspected of being commonly overlooked and therefore much more prevalent. Mast cell activation and release of inflammatory cytokines as well as other inflammatory agents from the reaction leads to spasm of the arteries leading to the heart muscle or a plaque breaking free and blocking one or more of those arteries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arterial occlusion</span>

Arterial occlusion is a condition involving partial or complete blockage of blood flow through an artery. Arteries are blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood to body tissues. An occlusion of arteries disrupts oxygen and blood supply to tissues, leading to ischemia. Depending on the extent of ischemia, symptoms of arterial occlusion range from simple soreness and pain that can be relieved with rest, to a lack of sensation or paralysis that could require amputation.

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