Crisis of Marxism

Last updated

Crisis of Marxism, also referred to as the crisis in Marxism, was a term first employed in the 1890s after the unexpected revival of global capitalist expansion became evident after the Long Depression that occurred in Europe from 1873 to 1896, which eventually precipitated a crisis in Marxist theory. [1] [2] The crisis resulted in a series of theoretical debates over the significance of economic recovery for the strategy of the socialist movement, [3] leading to ideological fragmentation and increasingly sectarian debates. [4] By the 1890s, orthodox Marxists came to believe that the capitalist mode of production was on the "verge of breakdown", while the socialist movement was on the "verge of revolutionary triumph". Due to a renewed burst of capitalist and industrial activity, such interpretations could no longer be maintained in Western Europe. [5]

Contents

The first person to introduce the notion of a crisis amid Marxism has been attributed to Thomas Masaryk, [6] who declared in 1898 that he was observing a "crisis within Marxism". [7] Recognizing a potential problem, Masaryk professed that socialism would be strengthened considerably "if its leaders will frankly criticize its fundamentals to overcome their defects". [8] Contemporaries treat these controversies within the Marxist ranks as a "crisis in Marxism", a "crisis of Marxism", or sometimes designating it as a "revisionist crisis". [9] Considered the father of revisionism, Eduard Bernstein is regarded the main proponent in precipitating one of the greatest crises in the consciousness of the Marxist proletarian movement, and therefore initiating the "revisionist controversy". [10] The October 1898 Stuttgart Party Conference brought this theoretical crisis into the open, entrenched the main battle lines, and established the principal elements of the revisionist position. [11]

Crisis in the economic theories of Marxism

The debate over the economic dilemmas of Marxism came to the forefront after several articles by Conrad Schmidt in 1897 and Bernstein in 1898 were published in German social-democratic journals. They questioned the validity of some Marxist tenets, pointed to the possible erroneous nature of materialism, and proposed to revise Marxism, [12] eventually asserting that many of Karl Marx’s economic anticipations were not borne out by the expectations presented in Das Kapital and elsewhere. [13] Bernstein and other Marxist revisionists addressed a number of issues that focused on the perceived deficiencies of Marx’s economic predictions. One of the first issues addressed was the Marxian prediction that industrial capitalism would lead to concentration and centralization. Bernstein observed that ownership of businesses had become more diffuse instead of being concentrated in few hands. [14]

In his attempt to prove that industrial concentration was not increasing, Bernstein wrote that "it is a well-established fact that in a whole series of branches of industry small and medium-sized undertakings appear quite capable of existing beside the large industries." [15] Bernstein also attempted to demonstrate empirically that huge firms were not as profitable as small-scale ones, arguing that all sizes of companies could survive well together. [16] Bernstein challenged orthodox Marxist theories that capitalism was doomed to fail, commenting that capitalism was increasingly overcoming a number of its frailties, "such as unemployment, overproduction, and the inequitable distribution of wealth." [17] Moreover, Bernstein said that the apparent stabilization of capitalism was not temporary but a permanent feature. [18]

Bernstein contended that the income of the proletariat was rising, [19] which he said directly contradicted proletarization and the immiseration thesis, Marx's conjecture that workers would become poorer due to capitalism's insoluble contradictions, oppression of workers and oppressed class mold, and profit-based structure. [20] Due to his empirical approach, Bernstein took the position that economic prosperity under capitalism was causing a reduction in class conflict, as well as increasing the differentiation of the working class. [21] Bernstein predicted that class antagonism would eventually diminish in a capitalist society whereas socialism would evolve peacefully under parliamentary and reformist responses. [22]

One of the first serious detractors of Bernstein's reformist socialism and optimistic stance towards capitalism was Alexander Parvus, a Marxist theoretician. Parvus contended that Bernstein was attempting to "overthrow socialism". [23] In one of his 1898 essays, Parvus critically examined the significance of Bernstein's revisionism, writing: "What would be the point of striving to achieve political power if it only led to a 'colossal defeat'? What would be the point of opposing capitalism if we could not manage without it? Instead we would have to encourage capitalist development, since, if it is not interrupted by general trade crises, it must eventually lead to the prosperity of all!" [24] There were also a number of other economic dilemmas facing orthodox Marxism in the late 1890s. David Ramsey Steele, a former member of the Socialist Party of Great Britain, summed up many of those he saw as the most serious conditions behind the crises that plagued Marxism, stating: "The workers were becoming richer, the working class was fragmented into sections with different interests, technological advance was accelerating rather than meeting a roadblock, the 'rate of profit' was not falling [referencing the falling rate of profit], the number of wealthy investors ('magnates of capital') was not falling but increasing, industrial concentration was not increasing, and in all countries the workers were putting their country above their class." [25]

Bernstein and the Precondition of Socialism

In his 1899 Precondition of Socialism, Bernstein treated the theoretical parts of Marxist doctrine as "not scientific but doctrinaire", therefore rejecting the fundamental principle of scientific socialism. [26] Instead, Bernstein evoked Kantian liberal ideals that promoted ethical and moral arguments in favor of socialism. [27] As Bernstein highlighted under the concept of ethical socialism, he said that "no action on the part of the masses" could have a "lasting effect without a moral impetus". [28] He also proposed the abandonment of the Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel-derived dialectic and revolution itself, ushered in the first post-Marxism era. [29] According to Henry Tudor and J. M. Tudor, Bernstein's rationale to reform Marxism was to secure "the rights of individuals and promoting their material wellbeing without undermining their independence." [30] He believed that the predominant problem of socialism was to "prevent the sheer size of the modern state from submerging the individual and nullifying democratic control". [31]

Breakdown controversy

The crisis of Marxism encompassed the "Breakdown Controversy", which was an argument among Karl Kautsky and orthodox Marxists and Bernstein, and revisionists over the predicted breakdown of capitalism due to its internal contradictions. Orthodox Marxists held the opinion that capitalism's collapse was imminent, which would result in a revolutionary conjuncture. [32] Opposed to revolutionary tactics, Bernstein argued that revolution was only justified if capitalism falls of its own accord. He said that if capitalism fails to self-destruct under the crisis of capital, as he said was predicted by Marx, Bernstein and Marxist reformers believed that a transition to socialism could be accomplished through the existing political structure. [33] To the consternation of orthodox Marxists, the contradiction of capitalism did not result in the worsening of economic conditions, pitting socialist theory against empirical data. In this debate, Kautsky, considered the pope of socialism, maintained that the Marxist revolution did not demand the economic breakdown of capitalism. In contrast, Bernstein conceived evolutionary socialism as an approach to Marxism that saw the pathway to socialism as reformist and evolutionary, minus what he saw as the chaos and violence of revolution. [34]

Conclusions

The consequences that followed the crisis of Marxism led to the birth of revisionist Marxism, which subsequently resulted in the emergence of the social democracy movement, [35] considered a turning point when Bernstein challenged the central precepts of socialist revolution. [36] The final political schism over Marxist revisionism ruptured after the Russian Revolution of 1917, where the social democratic parties discarded militant revolutionary in support of parliamentary reformation whilst still declaring their dedication to socialization. [37] Social democracy advocated an evolutionary transformation of the private-based economy to a socialist mode of production via established political processes under social reform of capitalism. [38] In retaliation, Joseph Stalin unleashed a series of attacks against Marxist reformers and social democrats, declaring in 1924: "Social democracy is objectively the moderate wing of fascism.... These organisations are not antipodes, they are twins." [39] Later on, before the popular front years, Stalin, Grigory Zinoviev, and the Communist International (Comintern) applied the term social fascists to the various independent social democratic parties, especially in Germany. [40]

Ever since the 1890s, numerous periods were under a continuing crisis of Marxist theory, including the early 1930s where German Marxist theoretician Karl Korsch warned that "Marxism today is in the midst of an historical and theoretical crisis. It is not simply a crisis within the 'Marxist movement', but a crisis of 'Marxism itself.'" [41] Others have argued that Marxism has been in a continuous state of crisis throughout the 20th century. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, a general Marxist crisis emerged that some argued was due to what they saw as the rejection of Marxism by "millions of workers as an obstacle rather than a help to their struggles." [42]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eduard Bernstein</span> German politician and theorist (1850–1932)

Eduard Bernstein was a German social democratic Marxist theorist and politician. A member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), Bernstein had held close association to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, but he began to identify what he believed to be errors in Marxist thinking and began to criticize views held by Marxism when he investigated and challenged the Marxist materialist theory of history. He rejected significant parts of Marxist theory that were based upon Hegelian metaphysics and rejected the Hegelian perspective of an immanent economic necessity to socialism.

Social Reform or Revolution? is an 1899 pamphlet by Polish-German Marxist theorist Rosa Luxemburg. Luxemburg argues that trade unions, reformist political parties and the expansion of social democracy—while important to the proletariat's development of class consciousness—cannot create a socialist society as Eduard Bernstein, among others, argued. Instead, she argues from a historical materialist perspective that capitalism is economically unsustainable and will eventually collapse and that a revolution is necessary to transform capitalism into socialism. The pamphlet was heavily influential in revolutionary socialist circles and along with Luxemburg's other work an important precursor to left communist theory.

Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to understand class relations and social conflict and a dialectical perspective to view social transformation. It originates from the works of 19th-century German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. As Marxism has developed over time into various branches and schools of thought, no single, definitive Marxist theory exists. Marxism has had a profound impact in shaping the modern world, with various left-wing and far-left political movements taking inspiration from it in varying local contexts.

Legal Marxism was a Russian Marxist movement based on a particular interpretation of Marxist theory whose proponents were active in socialist circles between 1894 and 1901. The movement's primary theoreticians were Pyotr Struve, Nikolai Berdyaev, Sergei Bulgakov, Mikhail Tugan-Baranovsky and Semyon Frank. The name was derived from the fact that its supporters promoted their ideas in legal publications.

Criticism of Marxism has come from various political ideologies and academic disciplines. This includes general intellectual criticism about dogmatism, a lack of internal consistency, criticism related to materialism, arguments that Marxism is a type of historical determinism or that it necessitates a suppression of individual rights, issues with the implementation of communism and economic issues such as the distortion or absence of price signals and reduced incentives. In addition, empirical and epistemological problems are frequently identified.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Richard D. Wolff</span> American Marxian economist (born 1942)

Richard David Wolff is an American Marxian economist known for his work on economic methodology and class analysis. He is a professor emeritus of economics at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and a visiting professor in the graduate program in international affairs of the New School. Wolff has also taught economics at Yale University, City University of New York, University of Utah, University of Paris I (Sorbonne), and The Brecht Forum in New York City.

Social democracy is a political, social, and economic philosophy within socialism that supports political and economic democracy. As a policy regime, it is described by academics as advocating economic and social interventions to promote social justice within the framework of a liberal-democratic polity and a capitalist-oriented mixed economy.

Andrew Arato is a professor of Political and Social Theory in the Department of Sociology at The New School, best known for his influential book Civil Society and Political Theory, coauthored with Jean L. Cohen. He is also known for his work on critical theory and constitutions and was from 1994 to 2014 co-editor of the journal Constellations with Nancy Fraser and Nadia Urbinati.

Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis that originates in the works of 19th century German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marxism analyzes and critiques the development of class society and especially of capitalism as well as the role of class struggles in systemic, economic, social and political change. It frames capitalism through a paradigm of exploitation and analyzes class relations and social conflict using a materialist interpretation of historical development – materialist in the sense that the politics and ideas of an epoch are determined by the way in which material production is carried on.

Democratic socialism is a left-wing political philosophy that supports political democracy and some form of a socially owned economy, with a particular emphasis on economic democracy, workplace democracy, and workers' self-management within a market socialist economy or an alternative form of a decentralised planned socialist economy. Democratic socialists argue that capitalism is inherently incompatible with the values of freedom, equality, and solidarity and that these ideals can only be achieved through the realisation of a socialist society. Although most democratic socialists seek a gradual transition to socialism, democratic socialism can support revolutionary or reformist politics to establish socialism. Democratic socialism was popularised by socialists who opposed the backsliding towards a one-party state in the Soviet Union and other nations during the 20th century.

Revisionism represents various ideas, principles, and theories that are based on a revision of Marxism. According to their critics, this involves a significant revision of fundamental Marxist theories and premises, and usually involves making an alliance with the bourgeois class. Some academic economists have used revisionism to describe post-Stalin, Eastern European writers who criticized one-party rule and argued in favour of freedom of the press and of the arts, intra- and sometimes inter-party democracy, independent labor unions, the abolition of bureaucratic privileges, and the subordination of police to the judiciary.

Neo-Marxism is a Marxist school of thought originating from 20th-century approaches to amend or extend Marxism and Marxist theory, typically by incorporating elements from other intellectual traditions such as critical theory, psychoanalysis, or existentialism. Neo-Marxism comes under the broader framework of the New Left. In a sociological sense, neo-Marxism adds Max Weber's broader understanding of social inequality, such as status and power, to Marxist philosophy.

Revolutionary socialism is a political philosophy, doctrine, and tradition within socialism that stresses the idea that a social revolution is necessary to bring about structural changes in society. More specifically, it is the view that revolution is a necessary precondition for transitioning from a capitalist to a socialist mode of production. Revolution is not necessarily defined as a violent insurrection; it is defined as a seizure of political power by mass movements of the working class so that the state is directly controlled or abolished by the working class as opposed to the capitalist class and its interests.

Marxian economics, or the Marxian school of economics, is a heterodox school of political economic thought. Its foundations can be traced back to Karl Marx's critique of political economy. However, unlike critics of political economy, Marxian economists tend to accept the concept of the economy prima facie. Marxian economics comprises several different theories and includes multiple schools of thought, which are sometimes opposed to each other; in many cases Marxian analysis is used to complement, or to supplement, other economic approaches. Because one does not necessarily have to be politically Marxist to be economically Marxian, the two adjectives coexist in usage, rather than being synonymous: They share a semantic field, while also allowing both connotative and denotative differences.

Orthodox Marxism is the body of Marxist thought which emerged after the death of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the late 19th century, expressed in its primary form by Karl Kautsky. Kautsky's views of Marxism dominated the European Marxist movement for two decades, and orthodox Marxism was the official philosophy of the majority of the socialist movement as represented in the Second International until the First World War in 1914, whose outbreak caused Kautsky's influence to wane and brought to prominence the orthodoxy of Vladimir Lenin. Orthodox Marxism aimed to simplify, codify and systematize Marxist method and theory by clarifying perceived ambiguities and contradictions in classical Marxism.

Ethical socialism is a political philosophy that appeals to socialism on ethical and moral grounds as opposed to consumeristic, economic, and egoistic grounds. It emphasizes the need for a morally conscious economy based upon the principles of altruism, cooperation, and social justice while opposing possessive individualism.

Reformism is a political doctrine advocating the reform of an existing system or institution instead of its abolition and replacement via revolution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Karl Kautsky</span> Czech-Austrian Marxist theorist (1854–1938)

Karl Johann Kautsky was a Czech-Austrian philosopher, journalist, and Marxist theorist. A leading theorist of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and the Second International, Kautsky advocated orthodox Marxism, which emphasized the scientific, materialist, and determinist character of Karl Marx's work. This interpretation dominated European Marxism for two decades, from the death of Friedrich Engels in 1895 to the outbreak of World War I in 1914.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Outline of Marxism</span> Overview of and topical guide to Marxism

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Marxism:

Social democracy originated as an ideology within the labour whose goals have been a social revolution to move away from purely laissez-faire capitalism to a social capitalism model sometimes called a social market economy. In a nonviolent revolution as in the case of evolutionary socialism, or the establishment and support of a welfare state. Its origins lie in the 1860s as a revolutionary socialism associated with orthodox Marxism. Starting in the 1890s, there was a dispute between committed revolutionary social democrats such as Rosa Luxemburg and reformist social democrats. The latter sided with Marxist revisionists such as Eduard Bernstein, who supported a more gradual approach grounded in liberal democracy and cross-class cooperation. Karl Kautsky represented a centrist position. By the 1920s, social democracy became the dominant political tendency, along with communism, within the international socialist movement, representing a form of democratic socialism with the aim of achieving socialism peacefully. By the 1910s, social democracy had spread worldwide and transitioned towards advocating an evolutionary change from capitalism to socialism using established political processes such as the parliament. In the late 1910s, socialist parties committed to revolutionary socialism renamed themselves as communist parties, causing a split in the socialist movement between these supporting the October Revolution and those opposing it. Social democrats who were opposed to the Bolsheviks later renamed themselves as democratic socialists in order to highlight their differences from communists and later in the 1920s from Marxist–Leninists, disagreeing with the latter on topics such as their opposition to liberal democracy whilst sharing common ideological roots.

References

  1. ↑ Eric Hobsbawm, How to Change the World: Reflections on Marx and Marxism, Yale University Press, 2011, p. 215.
  2. ↑ Terrance McLoughlin, R. T. Drake, "The First Crisis of Marxian Theory and the Bernstein-Kautsky Debate", Praxis, No. 3, 1976, p. 27.
  3. ↑ Terrance McLoughlin, R. T. Drake, "The First Crisis of Marxian Theory and the Bernstein-Kautsky Debate", Praxis, No. 3, 1976, p. 26.
  4. ↑ Eric Hobsbawm, How to Change the World: Reflections on Marx and Marxism, Yale University Press, 2011, pp. 252–253.
  5. ↑ Eric Hobsbawm, How to Change the World: Reflections on Marx and Marxism, Yale University Press, 2011, pp. 252–253.
  6. ↑ Martin Jay, Fin de Siècle Socialism and Other Essays, Routledge, 2009, p. 1.
  7. ↑ Antonio Labriola, Socialism and Philosophy, Chicago, IL, Charles H. Keer & Company, 1907, p. 197.
  8. ↑ Antonio Labriola, Socialism and Philosophy, Chicago, IL, Charles H. Keer & Company, 1907, p. 197.
  9. ↑ Georges Haupt, Aspects of International Socialism, 1871-1914: Essays by Georges Haupt, Cambridge University Press, 2010, p. 19
  10. ↑ David W. Morgan, "The Father of Revisionism Revisited: Eduard Bernstein", The Journal of Modern History, University of Chicago Press, Vol. 51, No. 3, September 1979.
  11. ↑ Henry Tudor and J. M. Tudor, edited and translated, Marxism and Social Democracy: The Revisionist Debate 1896-1898, Cambridge University Press, 1988, "Preface", p. x.
  12. ↑ Georgi Plekhanov, "On the Alleged Crisis in Marxism", 1898, Selected Philosophical Works, Vol. II, Moscow, 1976, pp. 316–325.
  13. ↑ Paul Dukes, World Order in History: Russia and the West, Routledge, 1996, p. 67.
  14. ↑ Heather M. Campbell, edit., The Britannica Guide to Political Science and Social Movements That Changed the Modern World, Britannica Educational Publishing, 2010, p. 141.
  15. ↑ Eduard Bernstein, Evolutionary Socialism, New York, Schocken, 1961, p. 59.
  16. ↑ Terrance McLoughlin, R. T. Drake, "The First Crisis of Marxian Theory and the Bernstein-Kautsky Debate", Praxis, No. 3, 1976, p. 28.
  17. ↑ Heather M. Campbell, edit., The Britannica Guide to Political Science and Social Movements That Changed the Modern World, Britannica Educational Publishing, 2010, p. 141.
  18. ↑ Alexander Parvus (Alexander Helphand): "Bernstein's Statement", Sächsische Arbeiter-Zeitung , Feb. 9, 1898, reprinted in Marxism and Social Democracy: The Revisionist Debate 1896-1898, Henry Tudor and J. M. Tudor, edited and translated, Cambridge University Press, 1988, p. 195.
  19. ↑ Terrance McLoughlin, R. T. Drake, "The First Crisis of Marxian Theory and the Bernstein-Kautsky Debate", Praxis, No. 3, 1976, p. 28.
  20. ↑ M. Patricia Marchak Ideological Perspectives on Canada, McGill-Queen's University Press, 2012, p. 58.
  21. ↑ Terrance McLoughlin, R. T. Drake, "The First Crisis of Marxian Theory and the Bernstein-Kautsky Debate", Praxis, No. 3, 1976, pp. 28–29.
  22. ↑ Harry Van der Linden, Kantian Ethics and Socialism, Hackett Publishing Company, 1988, p. 299.
  23. ↑ Alexander Pravus, "Bernstein's Overthrow of Socialism", series of articles in Sächsische Arbeiter-Zeitung that denounced Bernstein, written between January and March of 1898. Reprinted, Henry Tudor and J. M. Tudor, edited and translated, Marxism and Social Democracy: The Revisionist Debate 1896-1898, Cambridge University Press, 1988, Introduction p. 174.
  24. ↑ Alexander Parvus (Alexander Helphand): "Bernstein's Statement", Sächsische Arbeiter-Zeitung, Feb. 9, 1898, reprinted in Marxism and Social Democracy: The Revisionist Debate 1896-1898, Henry Tudor and J. M. Tudor, edited and translated, Cambridge University Press, 1988, p. 195.
  25. ↑ David Ramsey Steele, "The Mystery of Fascism", first published in Liberty, Vol. 15, No. 11, November 2001.
  26. ↑ Eduard Bernstein, Precondition of Socialism and the Tasks of Social Democracy, Raymond Guess, Quentin Skinner editors, Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought, new translation, "Introduction", p. xxiv.
  27. ↑ Manfred B. Steger, The Quest for Evolutionary Socialism: Eduard Bernstein and social democracy, Cambridge University Press, 1997, p. 115.
  28. ↑ Manfred B. Steger, The Quest for Evolutionary Socialism: Eduard Bernstein and social democracy, Cambridge University Press, 1997, p. 114, from Bernstein's "The Realistic and Ideological Moments in Socialism", 1898 in MS, p. 240.
  29. ↑ Saree Makdisi, Cesare Casarino, Rebecca E. Karl, edit., Marxism Beyond Marxism, chap. 1, Fredric Jameson, "Actually Existing Marxism", Routledge, 1996, p. 21.
  30. ↑ Henry Tudor and J. M. Tudor, edited and translated, Marxism and Social Democracy: The Revisionist Debate 1896-1898, Cambridge University Press, 1988, "Introduction", p. 16.
  31. ↑ Henry Tudor and J. M. Tudor, edited and translated, Marxism and Social Democracy: The Revisionist Debate 1896-1898, Cambridge University Press, 1988, "Introduction", p. 16.
  32. ↑ Terrance McLoughlin, R. T. Drake, "The First Crisis of Marxian Theory and the Bernstein-Kautsky Debate", Praxis, No. 3, 1976, p. 26.
  33. ↑ Terrance McLoughlin, R. T. Drake, "The First Crisis of Marxian Theory and the Bernstein-Kautsky Debate", Praxis, No. 3, 1976, p. 26.
  34. ↑ Terrance McLoughlin, R. T. Drake, "The First Crisis of Marxian Theory and the Bernstein-Kautsky Debate", Praxis, No. 3, 1976, p. 28.
  35. ↑ Ronaldo Munck, Marx @ 2000: Late Marxist Perspectives, London and New York, Zed Books, 2002, p. 15.
  36. ↑ Georges Haupt, Aspects of International Socialism, 1871-1914: Essays by Georges Haupt, Cambridge University Press, 2010, "Preface" by Eric Hobsbawm, p. xiv.
  37. ↑ David Miller, "Social Democracy", in Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward Craig, general edit., Vol. 8 (Questions to Sociobiology), 1998, p. 827.
  38. ↑ "Social democracy", Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2 January 2018.
  39. ↑ J. V. Stalin, "Concerning the International Situation", Works, Vol. 6, January–November, 1924, pp. 293–314.
  40. ↑ K. Hildebrand, The Third Reich, Routledge, 1991, p. 106.
  41. ↑ Karl Korsch, "The Crisis of Marxism", 1931, first published in Die materialistische Geschichtsauffassung, 1971, translated by Otto Koester.
  42. ↑ Harry M. Cleaver, "Kropotkin, Self-valorization and the Crisis of Marxism", Anarchist Studies, 2:2, 1993, this paper was presented to the Conference on Pyotr Alexeevich Kropotkin organized by the Russian Academy of Science, held in Moscow, St. Petersburg and Dimitrov on 8–14 December 1992.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.